Defective peroxisomal catabolism of branched fatty acyl coenzyme A in mice lacking the sterol carrier protein-2/sterol carrier protein-x gene function

Stability and binding properties of wild-type and c17s mutated human sterol carrier protein 2

The temperature- and solvent-induced denaturation of both the SCP2 wild-type and the mutated protein c71s were studied by CD measurements at 222 nm. The temperature-induced transition curves were deconvoluted according to a two-state mechanism resulting in a transition temperature of 70.5 degrees C and 59.9 degrees C for the wild-type and the c71s, respectively, with corresponding values of the van't Hoff enthalpies of 183 and 164 kJ/mol. Stability parameters characterizing the guanidine hydrochloride denaturation curves were also calculated on the basis of a two-state transition. The transitions of the wild-type occurs at 0.82 M GdnHCl and that of the c71s mutant at 0.55 M GdnHCl. These differences in the half denaturation concentration of GdnHCl reflect already the significant stability differences between the two proteins. A quantitative measure are the Gibbs energies DeltaG(0)(D)(buffer) at 25 degrees C of 15.5 kJ/mol for the wild-type and 8.0 kJ/mol for the mutant. We characterized also the alkyl chain binding properties of the two proteins by measuring the interaction parameters for the complex formation with 1-O-Decanyl-beta-D-glucoside using isothermal titration microcalorimetry. The dissociation constants, K(d), for wild-type SCP2 are 335 microM at 25 degrees C and 1.3 mM at 35 degrees C. The corresponding binding enthalpies, DeltaH(b), are -21. 5 kJ/mol at 25 degrees C and 72.2 kJ/mol at 35 degrees C. The parameters for the c71s mutant at 25 degrees C are K(d)=413 microM and DeltaH(b)=16.6 kJ/mol. These results suggest that both SCP2 wild-type and the c71s mutant bind the hydrophobic compound with moderate affinity.

Absence of spontaneous peroxisome proliferation in enoyl-CoA Hydratase/L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase-deficient mouse liver. Further support for the role of fatty acyl CoA oxidase in PPARalpha ligand metabolism

Peroxisomes contain a classical L-hydroxy-specific peroxisome proliferator-inducible beta-oxidation system and also a second noninducible D-hydroxy-specific beta-oxidation system. We previously generated mice lacking fatty acyl-CoA oxidase (AOX), the first enzyme of the L-hydroxy-specific classical beta-oxidation system; these AOX-/- mice exhibited sustained activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha), resulting in profound spontaneous peroxisome proliferation in liver cells. These observations implied that AOX is responsible for the metabolic degradation of PPARalpha ligands. In this study, the function of enoyl-CoA hydratase/L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (L-PBE), the second enzyme of this peroxisomal beta-oxidation system, was investigated by disrupting its gene. Mutant mice (L-PBE-/-) were viable and fertile and exhibited no detectable gross phenotypic defects. L-PBE-/- mice showed no hepatic steatosis and manifested no spontaneous peroxisome proliferation, unlike that encountered in livers of mice deficient in AOX. These results indicate that disruption of classical peroxisomal fatty acid beta-oxidation system distal to AOX step does not interfere with the inactivation of endogenous ligands of PPARalpha, further confirming that the AOX gene is indispensable for the physiological regulation of this receptor. The absence of appreciable changes in lipid metabolism also indicates that enoyl-CoAs, generated in the classical system in L-PBE-/- mice are diverted to D-hydroxy-specific system for metabolism by D-PBE. When challenged with a peroxisome proliferator, L-PBE-/- mice showed increases in the levels of hepatic mRNAs and proteins that are regulated by PPARalpha except for appreciable blunting of peroxisome proliferative response as compared with that observed in hepatocytes of wild type mice similarly treated. This blunting of peroxisome proliferative response is attributed to the absence of L-PBE protein in L-PBE-/- mouse liver, because all other proteins are induced essentially to the same extent in both wild type and L-PBE-/- mice.

Peroxisomal disorders: clinical, biochemical, and molecular aspects

Peroxisomes are subcellular organelles catalyzing a number of indispensable functions in cellular metabolism. The importance of peroxisomes in man is stressed by the existence of an expanding group of genetic diseases in which there is an impairment in one or more peroxisomal functions. Much has been learned in recent years about these functions and many of the enzymes involved have been characterized, purified and their cDNAs cloned. This has allowed resolution of the enzymatic and molecular basis of many of the single peroxisomal enzyme deficiencies. Similarly, the molecular basis of the peroxisome biogenesis disorders is also being resolved rapidly thanks to the successful use of CHO as well as yeast mutants. In this paper we will provide an overview of the peroxisomal disorders with particular emphasis on their clinical, biochemical and molecular characteristics.

High-affinity binding of very-long-chain fatty acyl-CoA esters to the peroxisomal non-specific lipid-transfer protein (sterol carrier protein-2)

Binding of fluorescent fatty acids to bovine liver non-specific lipid-transfer protein (nsL-TP) was assessed by measuring fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between the single tryptophan residue of nsL-TP and the fluorophore. Upon addition of pyrene dodecanoic acid (Pyr-C12) and cis-parinaric acid to nsL-TP, FRET was observed indicating that these fatty acids were accommodated in the lipid binding site closely positioned to the tryptophan residue. Substantial binding was observed only when these fatty acids were presented in the monomeric form complexed to beta-cyclodextrin. As shown by time-resolved fluorescence measurements, translocation of Pyr-C12 from the Pyr-C12-beta-cyclodextrin complex to nsL-TP changed dramatically the direct molecular environment of the pyrene moiety: i.e. the fluorescence lifetime of the directly excited pyrene increased at least by 25% and a distinct rotational correlation time of 7 ns was observed. In order to evaluate the affinity of nsL-TP for intermediates of the beta-oxidation pathway, a binding assay was developed based on the ability of fatty acyl derivatives to displace Pyr-C12 from the lipid binding site as reflected by the reduction of FRET. Hexadecanoyl-CoA and 2-hexadecenoyl-CoA were found to bind readily to nsL-TP, whereas 3-hydroxyhexadecanoyl-CoA and 3-ketohexadecanoyl-CoA bound poorly. The highest affinities were observed for the very-long-chain fatty acyl-CoA esters (24:0-CoA, 26:0-CoA) and their enoyl derivatives (24:1-CoA, 26:1-CoA). Binding of non-esterified hexadecanoic acid and tetracosanoic acid (24:0) was negligible.

Phytanic acid activates the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) in sterol carrier protein 2-/ sterol carrier protein x-deficient mice

We showed recently that a targeted null mutation in the murine sterol carrier protein 2-/sterol carrier protein x-gene (Scp2) leads to defective peroxisomal catabolism of 3,7,11, 15-tetramethylhexadecanoic acid (phytanic acid), peroxisome proliferation, hypolipidemia, and enhanced hepatic expression of several genes that have been demonstrated to be transcriptionally regulated by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha). As a broad range of fatty acids activates PPARalpha in vitro, we examined whether the latter effects could be because of phytanic acid-induced activation of this transcription factor. Dietary phytol supplementation was used to modulate the concentration of phytanic acid in C57Bl/6 and Scp2 (-/-) mice. We found that the serum concentrations of phytanic acid correlated well with the expression of genes encoding peroxisomal beta-oxidation enzymes and liver fatty acid-binding protein, which have all been demonstrated to contain functionally active peroxisome proliferator response elements in their promoter regions. In accordance with these findings, a stimulating effect on acyl-CoA oxidase gene expression was also observed after incubation of the rat hepatoma cell line MH1C1 with phytanic acid. Moreover, reporter gene studies revealed that phytanic acid induces the expression of a peroxisome proliferator response element-driven chloramphenicol transferase reporter gene comparable with strong peroxisome proliferators. In addition, the ability of phytanic acid to act as an inductor of PPARalpha-dependent gene expression corresponded with high affinity binding of this dietary branched chain fatty acid to recombinant PPARalpha. We conclude that phytanic acid can be considered as a bona fide physiological ligand of murine PPARalpha.

FRET microscopy demonstrates molecular association of non-specific lipid transfer protein (nsL-TP) with fatty acid oxidation enzymes in peroxisomes

The fate of fluorescently labeled pre-nsL-TP (Cy3-pre-nsL-TP) microinjected into BALB/c 3T3 fibroblasts was investigated by confocal laser scanning microscopy. The protein exhibited a distinct punctate fluorescence pattern and colocalized to a high degree with the immunofluorescence pattern for the peroxisomal enzyme acyl-CoA oxidase. Proteolytic removal of the C-terminal leucine of the putative peroxisomal targeting sequence (AKL) resulted in a diffuse cytosolic fluorescence. These results indicate that microinjected Cy3-pre-nsL-TP is targeted to peroxisomes. The association of nsL-TP with peroxisomal enzymes was investigated in cells by measuring fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between the microinjected Cy3-pre-nsL-TP and Cy5-labeled antibodies against the peroxisomal enzymes acyl-CoA oxidase, 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase, bifunctional enzyme, PMP70 and catalase. The technique of photobleaching digital imaging microscopy (pbDIM), used to quantitate the FRET efficiency on a pixel-by-pixel basis, revealed a specific association of nsL-TP with acyl-CoA oxidase, 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase and bifunctional enzyme in the peroxisomes. These observations were corroborated by subjecting a peroxisomal matrix protein fraction to affinity chromatography on Sepharose-immobilized pre-nsL-TP. Acyl-CoA oxidase was retained. These studies provide strong evidence for a role of nsL-TP in the regulation of peroxisomal fatty acid beta-oxidation, e.g. by facilitating the presentation of substrates and/or stabilization of the enzymes.

Sterol carrier protein 2 participates in hypersecretion of biliary cholesterol during gallstone formation in genetically gallstone-susceptible mice

In inbred mice, susceptibility to cholesterol gallstone disease is conferred by Lith genes, which in part promote hypersecretion of cholesterol into bile in response to a high-fat/cholesterol/cholic acid (lithogenic) diet. Because cytosolic sterol carrier protein 2 (SCP2) is believed to participate in cellular cholesterol trafficking and is elevated in the liver cytosol of cholesterol gallstone patients, we defined the hepatic expression of SCP2 during cholesterol gallstone formation in gallstone-susceptible C57L and gallstone-resistant AKR mice fed the lithogenic diet. Steady-state cytosolic SCP2 levels in C57L, but not AKR mice increased as a function of time and were correlated positively with biliary cholesterol hypersecretion, cholesterol saturation indices of gall-bladder biles and the appearance of liquid and solid cholesterol crystals leading to gallstone formation. Steady-state mRNA levels increased co-ordinately, consistent with regulation of SCP2 expression at the transcriptional level. Our results suggest that overexpression of SCP2 contributes to biliary cholesterol hypersecretion and the pathogenesis of gallstones in genetically susceptible mice. Because of the different chromosomal localizations of the Lith and Scp2 genes, we postulate that Lith genes control SCP2 expression indirectly.