Real-time measurements of actin filament polymerization by total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy

Determinants of Formin Homology 1 (FH1) domain function in actin filament elongation by formins

Formin-mediated elongation of actin filaments proceeds via association of Formin Homology 2 (FH2) domain dimers with the barbed end of the filament, allowing subunit addition while remaining processively attached to the end. The flexible Formin Homology 1 (FH1) domain, located directly N-terminal to the FH2 domain, contains one or more stretches of polyproline that bind the actin-binding protein profilin. Diffusion of FH1 domains brings associated profilin-actin complexes into contact with the FH2-bound barbed end of the filament, thereby enabling direct transfer of actin. We investigated how the organization of the FH1 domain of budding yeast formin Bni1p determines the rates of profilin-actin transfer onto the end of the filament. Each FH1 domain transfers actin to the barbed end independently of the other and structural evidence suggests a preference for actin delivery from each FH1 domain to the closest long-pitch helix of the filament. The transfer reaction is diffusion-limited and influenced by the affinities of the FH1 polyproline tracks for profilin. Position-specific sequence variations optimize the efficiency of FH1-stimulated polymerization by binding profilin weakly near the FH2 domain and binding profilin more strongly farther away. FH1 domains of many other formins follow this organizational trend. This particular sequence architecture may optimize the efficiency of FH1-stimulated elongation.

Cofilin cooperates with fascin to disassemble filopodial actin filaments

Cells use a large repertoire of proteins to remodel the actin cytoskeleton. Depending on the proteins involved, F-actin is organized in specialized protrusions such as lamellipodia or filopodia, which serve diverse functions in cell migration and sensing. Although factors responsible for directed filament assembly in filopodia have been extensively characterized, the mechanisms of filament disassembly in these structures are mostly unknown. We investigated how the actin-depolymerizing factor cofilin-1 affects the dynamics of fascincrosslinked actin filaments in vitro and in live cells. By multicolor total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy and fluorimetric assays, we found that cofilin-mediated severing is enhanced in fascin-crosslinked bundles compared with isolated filaments, and that fascin and cofilin act synergistically in filament severing. Immunolabeling experiments demonstrated for the first time that besides its known localization in lamellipodia and membrane ruffles, endogenous cofilin can also accumulate in the tips and shafts of filopodia. Live-cell imaging of fluorescently tagged proteins revealed that cofilin is specifically targeted to filopodia upon stalling of protrusion and during their retraction. Subsequent electron tomography established filopodial actin filament and/or bundle fragmentation to precisely correlate with cofilin accumulation. These results identify a new mechanism of filopodium disassembly involving both fascin and cofilin.

Polymerization of actin filaments coupled with adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis: Brownian dynamics and theoretical analysis

Polymerization dynamics of single actin filaments coupled with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis is investigated via both theoretical analysis and Brownian dynamics simulations. Brownian dynamics simulations have been applied recently to study the growth behaviors of long filaments as a function of the free actin monomer concentrations, C(T), which is found to be in agreement with the associated experiments. In the present study, both ATP cap length and length diffusivity are studied as a function of the free ATP-actin monomer concentrations, C(T). The exact analytical expressions are found to be in perfect consistency with Brownian dynamics simulations. Likewise, we find that the length diffusion coefficient is peaked near the critical concentration, C(T,cr). It is, therefore, expected that the dependence of length diffusivity on ATP-actin monomer concentrations is utilized to analyze the surprising experiments on the length fluctuations of individual actin filaments.

The mechanisms of microtubule catastrophe and rescue: implications from analysis of a dimer-scale computational model

ETOC: The behavior of a dimer-scale computational model predicts that short interprotofilament “cracks” (laterally unbonded regions between protofilaments) exist even at the tips of growing MTs and that rapid fluctuations in the depths of these cracks govern both catastrophe and rescue.

Microtubule (MT) dynamic instability is fundamental to many cell functions, but its mechanism remains poorly understood, in part because it is difficult to gain information about the dimer-scale events at the MT tip. To address this issue, we used a dimer-scale computational model of MT assembly that is consistent with tubulin structure and biochemistry, displays dynamic instability, and covers experimentally relevant spans of time. It allows us to correlate macroscopic behaviors (dynamic instability parameters) with microscopic structures (tip conformations) and examine protofilament structure as the tip spontaneously progresses through both catastrophe and rescue. The model's behavior suggests that several commonly held assumptions about MT dynamics should be reconsidered. Moreover, it predicts that short, interprotofilament “cracks” (laterally unbonded regions between protofilaments) exist even at the tips of growing MTs and that rapid fluctuations in the depths of these cracks influence both catastrophe and rescue. We conclude that experimentally observed microtubule behavior can best be explained by a “stochastic cap” model in which tubulin subunits hydrolyze GTP according to a first-order reaction after they are incorporated into the lattice; catastrophe and rescue result from stochastic fluctuations in the size, shape, and extent of lateral bonding of the cap.

Cortactin releases the brakes in actin- based motility by enhancing WASP-VCA detachment from Arp2/3 branches

Cortactin is involved in invadopodia and podosome formation [1], pathogens and endosome motility [2], and persistent lamellipodia protrusion [3, 4]; its overexpression enhances cellular motility and metastatic activity [5-8]. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain cortactin's role in Arp2/3-driven actin polymerization [9, 10], yet its direct role in cell movement remains unclear. We use a biomimetic system to study the mechanism of cortactin-mediated regulation of actin-driven motility [11]. We tested the role of different cortactin variants that interact with Arp2/3 complex and actin filaments distinctively. We show that wild-type cortactin significantly enhances the bead velocity at low concentrations. Single filament experiments show that cortactin has no significant effect on actin polymerization and branch stability, whereas it strongly affects the branching rate driven by Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP)-VCA fragment and Arp2/3 complex. These results lead us to propose that cortactin plays a critical role in translating actin polymerization at a bead surface into motion, by releasing WASP-VCA from the new branching site. This enhanced release has two major effects: it increases the turnover rate of branching per WASP molecule, and it decreases the friction-like force caused by the binding of the moving surface with respect to the growing actin network.

Fragmentation is crucial for the steady-state dynamics of actin filaments

Despite the recognition that actin filaments are important for numerous cellular processes, and decades of investigation, the dynamics of in vitro actin filaments are still not completely understood. Here, we follow the time evolution of the length distribution of labeled actin reporter filaments in an unlabeled F-actin solution via fluorescence microscopy. Whereas treadmilling and diffusive length fluctuations cannot account for the observed dynamics, our results suggest that at low salt conditions, spontaneous fragmentation is crucial.

A theoretical analysis of filament length fluctuations in actin and other polymers

Control of the structure and dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton is essential for cell motility and for maintaining the structural integrity of cells. Central to understanding the control of these features is an understanding of the dynamics of actin filaments, first as isolated filaments, then as integrated networks, and finally as networks containing higher-order structures such as bundles, stress fibers and acto-myosin complexes. It is known experimentally that single filaments can exhibit large fluctuations, but a detailed understanding of the transient dynamics involved is still lacking. Here we first study stochastic models of a general system involving two-monomer types that can be analyzed completely, and then we report stochastic simulations on the complete actin model with three monomer types. We systematically examine the transient behavior of filament length dynamics so as to gain a better understanding of the time scales involved in reaching a steady state. We predict the lifetime of a cap of one monomer type and obtain the mean and variance of the survival time of a cap at the filament end, which together determine the filament length fluctuations.

Direct redox regulation of F-actin assembly and disassembly by Mical

Different types of cell behavior, including growth, motility, and navigation, require actin proteins to assemble into filaments. Here, we describe a biochemical process that was able to disassemble actin filaments and limit their reassembly. Actin was a specific substrate of the multidomain oxidation-reduction enzyme, Mical, a poorly understood actin disassembly factor that directly responds to Semaphorin/Plexin extracellular repulsive cues. Actin filament subunits were directly modified by Mical on their conserved pointed-end, which is critical for filament assembly. Mical posttranslationally oxidized the methionine 44 residue within the D-loop of actin, simultaneously severing filaments and decreasing polymerization. This mechanism underlying actin cytoskeletal collapse may have broad physiological and pathological ramifications.

The C terminus of formin FMNL3 accelerates actin polymerization and contains a WH2 domain-like sequence that binds both monomers and filament barbed ends

Formin proteins are actin assembly factors that accelerate filament nucleation then remain on the elongating barbed end and modulate filament elongation. The formin homology 2 (FH2) domain is central to these activities, but recent work has suggested that additional sequences enhance FH2 domain function. Here we show that the C-terminal 76 amino acids of the formin FMNL3 have a dramatic effect on the ability of the FH2 domain to accelerate actin assembly. This C-terminal region contains a WASp homology 2 (WH2)-like sequence that binds actin monomers in a manner that is competitive with other WH2 domains and with profilin. In addition, the C terminus binds filament barbed ends. As a monomer, the FMNL3 C terminus inhibits actin polymerization and slows barbed end elongation with moderate affinity. As a dimer, the C terminus accelerates actin polymerization from monomers and displays high affinity inhibition of barbed end elongation. These properties are not common to all formin C termini, as those of mDia1 and INF2 do not behave similarly. Interestingly, mutation of two aliphatic residues, which blocks high affinity actin binding by the WH2-like sequence, has no effect on the ability of the C terminus to enhance FH2-mediated polymerization. However, mutation of three successive basic residues at the C terminus of the WH2-like sequence compromises polymerization enhancement. These results illustrate that the C termini of formins are highly diverse in their interactions with actin.

Actin filament severing by cofilin is more important for assembly than constriction of the cytokinetic contractile ring

When fission yeast express mutant cofilin that is inefficient at actin filament severing, cytokinetic contractile ring formation is severely impaired, but ring contraction proceeds efficiently.

We created two new mutants of fission yeast cofilin to investigate why cytokinesis in many organisms depends on this small actin-binding protein. These mutant cofilins bound actin monomers normally, but bound and severed ADP-actin filaments much slower than wild-type cofilin. Cells depending on mutant cofilins condensed nodes, precursors of the contractile ring, into clumps rather than rings. Starting from clumped nodes, mutant cells slowly assembled rings from diverse intermediate structures including spiral strands containing actin filaments and other contractile ring proteins. This process in mutant cells depended on α-actinin. These slowly assembled contractile rings constricted at a normal rate but with more variability, indicating ring constriction is not very sensitive to defects in severing by cofilin. Computer simulations of the search-capture-pull and release model of contractile ring formation predicted that nodes clump when the release step is slow, so cofilin severing of actin filament connections between nodes likely contributes to the release step.

Arabidopsis actin depolymerizing factor4 modulates the stochastic dynamic behavior of actin filaments in the cortical array of epidermal cells

Actin filament arrays are constantly remodeled as the needs of cells change as well as during responses to biotic and abiotic stimuli. Previous studies demonstrate that many single actin filaments in the cortical array of living Arabidopsis thaliana epidermal cells undergo stochastic dynamics, a combination of rapid growth balanced by disassembly from prolific severing activity. Filament turnover and dynamics are well understood from in vitro biochemical analyses and simple reconstituted systems. However, the identification in living cells of the molecular players involved in controlling actin dynamics awaits the use of model systems, especially ones where the power of genetics can be combined with imaging of individual actin filaments at high spatial and temporal resolution. Here, we test the hypothesis that actin depolymerizing factor (ADF)/cofilin contributes to stochastic filament severing and facilitates actin turnover. A knockout mutant for Arabidopsis ADF4 has longer hypocotyls and epidermal cells when compared with wild-type seedlings. This correlates with a change in actin filament architecture; cytoskeletal arrays in adf4 cells are significantly more bundled and less dense than in wild-type cells. Several parameters of single actin filament turnover are also altered. Notably, adf4 mutant cells have a 2.5-fold reduced severing frequency as well as significantly increased actin filament lengths and lifetimes. Thus, we provide evidence that ADF4 contributes to the stochastic dynamic turnover of actin filaments in plant cells.

Individual actin filaments in a microfluidic flow reveal the mechanism of ATP hydrolysis and give insight into the properties of profilin

A novel microfluidic approach allows the analysis of the dynamics of individual actin filaments, revealing both their local ADP/ADP-Pi-actin composition and that Pi release is a random mechanism.

The hydrolysis of ATP associated with actin and profilin-actin polymerization is pivotal in cell motility. It is at the origin of treadmilling of actin filaments and controls their dynamics and mechanical properties, as well as their interactions with regulatory proteins. The slow release of inorganic phosphate (Pi) that follows rapid cleavage of ATP gamma phosphate is linked to an increase in the rate of filament disassembly. The mechanism of Pi release in actin filaments has remained elusive for over 20 years. Here, we developed a microfluidic setup to accurately monitor the depolymerization of individual filaments and determine their local ADP-Pi content. We demonstrate that Pi release in the filament is not a vectorial but a random process with a half-time of 102 seconds, irrespective of whether the filament is assembled from actin or profilin-actin. Pi release from the depolymerizing barbed end is faster (half-time of 0.39 seconds) and further accelerated by profilin. Profilin accelerates the depolymerization of both ADP- and ADP-Pi-F-actin. Altogether, our data show that during elongation from profilin-actin, the dissociation of profilin from the growing barbed end is not coupled to Pi release or to ATP cleavage on the terminal subunit. These results emphasize the potential of microfluidics in elucidating actin regulation at the scale of individual filaments.

Actin proteins assemble into microfilaments that control cell shape and movement by polymerizing or depolymerizing. These actin monomers can bind ATP or ADP molecules. The incorporation of an ATP-actin monomer into a growing filament results in rapid cleavage of ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi), followed by a slower release of Pi. As a consequence, actin filaments are composed mainly of ADP- and ADP-Pi-actin subunits, which have different depolymerization kinetics and mechanical properties, and can be targeted specifically by regulatory proteins that affect filament function. Hence, the understanding of many cellular processes requires a knowledge of the ADP/ADP-Pi composition of actin filaments at a molecular scale. This has so far remained elusive because traditional studies rely on measuring an average over many filaments in solution. To address this issue, we developed a microfluidics setup to monitor individual filaments with light microscopy while rapidly changing their chemical environment. We find that depolymerization accelerates progressively and corresponds to an exponential ADP-Pi-actin profile in the filament, meaning that each subunit releases its Pi with the same rate. Our method also provides novel insight into the function of profilin, a protein important for regulation of actin dynamics in cells, thus demonstrating the method's potential in the functional analysis of actin regulators.

Mechanism and cellular function of Bud6 as an actin nucleation-promoting factor

Bud6 functions as an actin nucleation–promoting factor (NPF) for Bni1; thus formins can depend on NPFs like the Arp2/3 complex. Unexpected parallels exist between Bud6 and WASp. Bud6 is the first nonmetazoan example of formins pairing with actin monomer–binding proteins to stimulate nucleation, akin to Spire-Capu and APC-mDia1

Formins are a conserved family of actin assembly–promoting factors with diverse biological roles, but how their activities are regulated in vivo is not well understood. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the formins Bni1 and Bnr1 are required for the assembly of actin cables and polarized cell growth. Proper cable assembly further requires Bud6. Previously it was shown that Bud6 enhances Bni1-mediated actin assembly in vitro, but the biochemical mechanism and in vivo role of this activity were left unclear. Here we demonstrate that Bud6 specifically stimulates the nucleation rather than the elongation phase of Bni1-mediated actin assembly, defining Bud6 as a nucleation-promoting factor (NPF) and distinguishing its effects from those of profilin. We generated alleles of Bud6 that uncouple its interactions with Bni1 and G-actin and found that both interactions are critical for NPF activity. Our data indicate that Bud6 promotes filament nucleation by recruiting actin monomers to Bni1. Genetic analysis of the same alleles showed that Bud6 regulation of formin activity is critical for normal levels of actin cable assembly in vivo. Our results raise important mechanistic parallels between Bud6 and WASP, as well as between Bud6 and other NPFs that interact with formins such as Spire.

Mechanism of actin filament nucleation by Vibrio VopL and implications for tandem W domain nucleation

Pathogen proteins targeting the actin cytoskeleton often serve as model systems to understand their more complex eukaryotic analogs. We show that the strong actin filament nucleation activity of Vibrio parahaemolyticus VopL depends on its three W domains and on its dimerization through a unique VopL C-terminal domain (VCD). The VCD shows a previously unknown all-helical fold and interacts with the pointed end of the actin nucleus, contributing to the nucleation activity directly and through duplication of the W domain repeat. VopL promotes rapid cycles of filament nucleation and detachment but generally has no effect on elongation. Profilin inhibits VopL-induced nucleation by competing for actin binding to the W domains. Combined, the results suggest that VopL stabilizes a hexameric double-stranded pointed end nucleus. Analysis of hybrid constructs of VopL and the eukaryotic nucleator Spire suggest that Spire may also function as a dimer in cells.

The functionally distinct fission yeast formins have specific actin-assembly properties

Fission yeast expresses three formins required for distinct actin cytoskeletal processes: Cdc12 (cytokinesis), For3 (polarization), and Fus1 (mating). We propose that in addition to differential regulation, key actin-assembly properties tailor formins for a particular role. In direct comparison to the well-studied Cdc12, we report the first in vitro characterization of the actin-assembly properties of For3 and Fus1. All three share fundamental formin activities; however, particular reaction rates vary significantly. Cdc12 is an efficient nucleator (one filament per approximately 3 Cdc12 dimers) that processively elongates profilin-actin at a moderate rate of 10 subunits s(-1) μM(-1), but lacks filament-bundling activity. Fus1 is also an efficient nucleator, yet processively elongates profilin-actin at one-half the rate of and dissociates 10-fold more rapidly than Cdc12; it also bundles filaments. For3 nucleates filaments 100-fold less well than Fus1, but like Cdc12, processively elongates profilin-actin at a moderate rate and lacks filament-bundling activity. Additionally, both the formin homology FH1 and FH2 domains contribute to the overall rate of profilin-actin elongation. We also confirmed the physiological importance of the actin-assembly activity of the fission yeast formins. Point mutants that disrupt their ability to stimulate actin assembly in vitro do not function properly in vivo.

Active multistage coarsening of actin networks driven by myosin motors

In cells, many vital processes involve myosin-driven motility that actively remodels the actin cytoskeleton and changes cell shape. Here we study how the collective action of myosin motors organizes actin filaments into contractile structures in a simplified model system devoid of biochemical regulation. We show that this self-organization occurs through an active multistage coarsening process. First, motors form dense foci by moving along the actin network structure followed by coalescence. Then the foci accumulate actin filaments in a shell around them. These actomyosin condensates eventually cluster due to motor-driven coalescence. We propose that the physical origin of this multistage aggregation is the highly asymmetric load response of actin filaments: they can support large tensions but buckle easily under piconewton compressive loads. Because the motor-generated forces well exceed this threshold, buckling is induced on the connected actin network that resists motor-driven filament sliding. We show how this buckling can give rise to the accumulation of actin shells around myosin foci and subsequent coalescence of foci into superaggregates. This new physical mechanism provides an explanation for the formation and contractile dynamics of disordered condensed actomyosin states observed in vivo.

Arabidopsis VILLIN4 is involved in root hair growth through regulating actin organization in a Ca2+-dependent manner

• Villin is one of the major actin filament bundling proteins in plants. The function of Arabidopsis VILLINs (AtVLNs) is still poorly understood in living cells. In this report, the biochemical activity and cellular function of AtVLN4 were examined. • The biochemical property of AtVLN4 was characterized by co-sedimentation assays, fluorescence microscopy and spectroscopy of pyrene fluorescence. The in vivo function of AtVLN4 was analysed by ectopically expressing it in tobacco pollen and examining the phenotypes of its T-DNA insertional plants. • Recombinant AtVLN4 protein exhibited multiple activities on actin, including actin filament bundling, calcium (Ca(2+))-dependent filament severing and barbed end capping. Expression of AtVLN4 in tobacco pollen induced the formation of supernumerary actin cables and reduced pollen tube growth. Loss of function of AtVLN4 resulted in slowing of root hair growth, alteration in cytoplasmic streaming routes and rate, and reduction of both axial and apical actin bundles. • Our results demonstrated that AtVLN4 is involved in root hair growth through regulating actin organization in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner.

EXTRACTION AND ANALYSIS OF ACTIN NETWORKS BASED ON OPEN ACTIVE CONTOUR MODELS

Network structures formed by actin filaments are present in many kinds of fluorescence microscopy images. In order to quantify the conformations and dynamics of such actin filaments, we propose a fully automated method to extract actin networks from images and analyze network topology. The method handles well intersecting filaments and, to some extent, overlapping filaments. First we automatically initialize a large number of Stretching Open Active Contours (SOACs) from ridge points detected by searching for plus-to-minus sign changes in the gradient map of the image. These initial SOACs then elongate simultaneously along the bright center-lines of filaments by minimizing an energy function. During their evolution, they may merge or stop growing, thus forming a network that represents the topology of the filament ensemble. We further detect junction points in the network and break the SOACs at junctions to obtain "SOAC segments". These segments are then re-grouped using a graph-cut spectral clustering method to represent the configuration of actin filaments. The proposed approach is generally applicable to extracting intersecting curvilinear structures in noisy images. We demonstrate its potential using two kinds of data: (1) actin filaments imaged by Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy (TIRFM) in vitro; (2) actin cytoskeleton networks in fission yeast imaged by spinning disk confocal microscopy.

The formin DAD domain plays dual roles in autoinhibition and actin nucleation

Formins are a large family of actin assembly-promoting proteins with many important biological roles. However, it has remained unclear how formins nucleate actin polymerization. All other nucleators are known to recruit actin monomers as a central part of their mechanisms. However, the actin-nucleating FH2 domain of formins lacks appreciable affinity for monomeric actin. Here, we found that yeast and mammalian formins bind actin monomers but that this activity requires their C-terminal DAD domains. Furthermore, we observed that the DAD works in concert with the FH2 to enhance nucleation without affecting the rate of filament elongation. We dissected this mechanism in mDia1, mapped nucleation activity to conserved residues in the DAD, and demonstrated that DAD roles in nucleation and autoinhibition are separable. Furthermore, DAD enhancement of nucleation was independent of contributions from the FH1 domain to nucleation. Together, our data show that (1) the DAD has dual functions in autoinhibition and nucleation; (2) the FH1, FH2, and DAD form a tripartite nucleation machine; and (3) formins nucleate by recruiting actin monomers and therefore are more similar to other nucleators than previously thought.

RICE MORPHOLOGY DETERMINANT encodes the type II formin FH5 and regulates rice morphogenesis

Multicellular organisms contain a large number of formins; however, their physiological roles in plants remain poorly understood. Here, we reveal that formin homology 5 (FH5), a type II formin mutated in rice morphology determinant (rmd), plays a crucial role in determining rice (Oryza sativa) morphology. FH5/RMD encodes a formin-like protein consisting of an N-terminal phosphatase tensin (PTEN)-like domain, an FH1 domain, and an FH2 domain. The rmd mutants display a bending growth pattern in seedlings, are stunted as adult plants, and have aberrant inflorescence (panicle) and seed shape. Cytological analysis showed that rmd mutants have severe cell elongation defects and abnormal microtubule and microfilament arrays. FH5/RMD is ubiquitously expressed in rice tissues, and its protein localization to the chloroplast surface is mediated by the PTEN domain. Biochemical assays demonstrated that recombinant FH5 protein can nucleate actin polymerization from monomeric G-actin or actin/profilin complexes, cap the barbed end of actin filaments, and bundle actin filaments in vitro. Moreover, FH5 can directly bind to and bundle microtubules through its FH2 domain in vitro. Our findings suggest that the rice formin protein FH5 plays a critical role in determining plant morphology by regulating actin dynamics and proper spatial organization of microtubules and microfilaments.

Purification of actin from fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe and characterization of functional differences from muscle actin

Fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is an important genetic model organism for studying the mechanisms of endocytosis and cytokinesis. However, most work on the biochemical properties of fission yeast actin-binding proteins has been done with skeletal muscle actin for matters of convenience. When simulations of mathematical models of the mechanism of endocytosis were compared with events in live cells, some of the reactions appeared to be much faster than observed in biochemical experiments with muscle actin. Here, we used gelsolin affinity chromatography to purify actin from fission yeast. S. pombe actin shares many properties with skeletal muscle actin but has higher intrinsic nucleotide exchange rate, faster trimer nucleus formation, faster phosphate dissociation rate from polymerized actin, and faster nucleation of actin filaments with Arp2/3 complex. These properties close the gap between the biochemistry and predictions made by mathematical models of endocytosis in S. pombe cells.

VASP is a processive actin polymerase that requires monomeric actin for barbed end association

Visualization of VASP tetramers interacting with static and growing actin filaments in vitro by TIRF microscopy leads to a new model for VASP-mediated actin filament assembly.

Ena/VASP proteins regulate the actin cytoskeleton during cell migration and morphogenesis and promote assembly of both filopodial and lamellipodial actin networks. To understand the molecular mechanisms underlying their cellular functions we used total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to visualize VASP tetramers interacting with static and growing actin filaments in vitro. We observed multiple filament binding modes: (1) static side binding, (2) side binding with one-dimensional diffusion, and (3) processive barbed end tracking. Actin monomers antagonize side binding but promote high affinity (K_d = 9 nM) barbed end attachment. In low ionic strength buffers, VASP tetramers are weakly processive (K_off = 0.69 s⁻¹) polymerases that deliver multiple actin monomers per barbed end–binding event and effectively antagonize filament capping. In higher ionic strength buffers, VASP requires profilin for effective polymerase and anti-capping activity. Based on our observations, we propose a mechanism that accounts for all three binding modes and provides a model for how VASP promotes actin filament assembly.

Imaging with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy for the cell biologist

Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy can be used in a wide range of cell biological applications, and is particularly well suited to analysis of the localization and dynamics of molecules and events near the plasma membrane. The TIRF excitation field decreases exponentially with distance from the cover slip on which cells are grown. This means that fluorophores close to the cover slip (e.g. within ~100 nm) are selectively illuminated, highlighting events that occur within this region. The advantages of using TIRF include the ability to obtain high-contrast images of fluorophores near the plasma membrane, very low background from the bulk of the cell, reduced cellular photodamage and rapid exposure times. In this Commentary, we discuss the applications of TIRF to the study of cell biology, the physical basis of TIRF, experimental setup and troubleshooting.

Rickettsia Sca2 is a bacterial formin-like mediator of actin-based motility

Diverse intracellular pathogens subvert the host actin-polymerization machinery to drive movement within and between cells during infection. Rickettsia in the spotted fever group (SFG) are Gram-negative, obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens that undergo actin-based motility and assemble distinctive 'comet tails' that consist of long, unbranched actin filaments. Despite this distinct organization, it was proposed that actin in Rickettsia comet tails is nucleated by the host Arp2/3 complex and the bacterial protein RickA, which assemble branched actin networks. However, a second bacterial gene, sca2, was recently implicated in actin-tail formation by R. rickettsii. Here, we demonstrate that Sca2 is a bacterial actin-assembly factor that functionally mimics eukaryotic formin proteins. Sca2 nucleates unbranched actin filaments, processively associates with growing barbed ends, requires profilin for efficient elongation, and inhibits the activity of capping protein, all properties shared with formins. Sca2 localizes to the Rickettsia surface and is sufficient to promote the assembly of actin filaments in cytoplasmic extract. These results suggest that Sca2 mimics formins to determine the unique organization of actin filaments in Rickettsia tails and drive bacterial motility, independently of host nucleators.

Segmentation and tracking of cytoskeletal filaments using open active contours

We use open active contours to quantify cytoskeletal structures imaged by fluorescence microscopy in two and three dimensions. We developed an interactive software tool for segmentation, tracking, and visualization of individual fibers. Open active contours are parametric curves that deform to minimize the sum of an external energy derived from the image and an internal bending and stretching energy. The external energy generates (i) forces that attract the contour toward the central bright line of a filament in the image, and (ii) forces that stretch the active contour toward the ends of bright ridges. Images of simulated semiflexible polymers with known bending and torsional rigidity are analyzed to validate the method. We apply our methods to quantify the conformations and dynamics of actin in two examples: actin filaments imaged by TIRF microscopy in vitro, and actin cables in fission yeast imaged by spinning disk confocal microscopy.

Single-molecule binding experiments on long time scales

We describe an approach for performing single-molecule binding experiments on time scales from hours to days, allowing for the observation of slower kinetics than have been previously investigated by single-molecule techniques. Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy is used to image the binding of labeled ligand to molecules specifically coupled to the surface of an optically transparent flow cell. Long-duration experiments are enabled by ensuring sufficient positional, chemical, thermal, and image stability. Principal components of this experimental stability include illumination timing, solution replacement, and chemical treatment of solution to reduce photodamage and photobleaching; and autofocusing to correct for spatial drift.

Actin-driven cell dynamics probed by Fourier transform light scattering

We applied the newly developed Fourier transform light scattering (FTLS) to study dynamic light scattering in single live cells, at a temporal scale of seconds to hours. The nanoscale cell fluctuations were measured with and without the active actin contribution. We found experimentally that the spatio-temporal signals rendered by FTLS reveal interesting cytoskeleton dynamics in glial cells (the predominant cell type in the nervous system). The active contribution of actin cytoskeleton was obtained by modulating its dynamic properties via Cytochalasin-D, a drug that inhibits actin polymerization/depolymerization.

Molecular basis for barbed end uncapping by CARMIL homology domain 3 of mouse CARMIL-1

Capping protein (CP) is a ubiquitously expressed, 62-kDa heterodimer that binds the barbed end of the actin filament with approximately 0.1 nm affinity to prevent further monomer addition. CARMIL is a multidomain protein, present from protozoa to mammals, that binds CP and is important for normal actin dynamics in vivo. The CARMIL CP binding site resides in its CAH3 domain (CARMIL homology domain 3) located at or near the protein's C terminus. CAH3 binds CP with approximately 1 nm affinity, resulting in a complex with weak capping activity (30-200 nm). Solution assays and single-molecule imaging show that CAH3 binds CP already present on the barbed end, causing a 300-fold increase in the dissociation rate of CP from the end (i.e. uncapping). Here we used nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to define the molecular interaction between the minimal CAH3 domain (CAH3a/b) of mouse CARMIL-1 and CP. Specifically, we show that the highly basic CAH3a subdomain is required for the high affinity interaction of CAH3 with a complementary "acidic groove" on CP opposite its actin-binding surface. This CAH3a-CP interaction orients the CAH3b subdomain, which we show is also required for potent anti-CP activity, directly adjacent to the basic patch of CP, shown previously to be required for CP association to and high affinity interaction with the barbed end. The importance of specific residue interactions between CP and CAH3a/b was confirmed by site-directed mutagenesis of both proteins. Together, these results offer a mechanistic explanation for the barbed end uncapping activity of CARMIL, and they identify the basic patch on CP as a crucial regulatory site.

Control of actin filament treadmilling in cell motility

Recent advances in structural, biochemical, biophysical, and live cell imaging approaches have furthered our understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which regulated assembly dynamics of actin filaments drive motile processes. Attention is focused on lamellipodium protrusion, powered by the turnover of a branched filament array. ATP hydrolysis on actin is the key reaction that allows filament treadmilling. It regulates barbed-end dynamics and length fluctuations at steady state and specifies the functional interaction of actin with essential regulatory proteins such as profilin and ADF/cofilin. ATP hydrolysis on actin and Arp2/3 acts as a timer, regulating the assembly and disassembly of the branched array to generate tropomyosin-mediated heterogeneity in the structure and dynamics of the lamellipodial network. The detailed molecular mechanisms of ATP hydrolysis/Pi release on F-actin remain elusive, as well as the mechanism of filament branching with Arp2/3 complex or that of the formin-driven processive actin assembly. Novel biophysical methods involving single-molecule measurements should foster progress in these crucial issues.

Role of ATP-hydrolysis in the dynamics of a single actin filament

We study the stochastic dynamics of growth and shrinkage of single actin filaments taking into account insertion, removal, and ATP hydrolysis of subunits either according to the vectorial mechanism or to the random mechanism. In a previous work, we developed a model for a single actin or microtubule filament where hydrolysis occurred according to the vectorial mechanism: the filament could grow only from one end, and was in contact with a reservoir of monomers. Here we extend this approach in two ways--by including the dynamics of both ends and by comparing two possible mechanisms of ATP hydrolysis. Our emphasis is mainly on two possible limiting models for the mechanism of hydrolysis within a single filament, namely the vectorial or the random model. We propose a set of experiments to test the nature of the precise mechanism of hydrolysis within actin filaments.

Biased transport of elastic cytoskeletal filaments with alternating polarities by molecular motors

We present a simple model for the bidirectional dynamics of actin bundles with alternating polarities in gliding assays with nonprocessive myosin motors. The bundle is represented as an elastic chain consisting of monomers with positive and negative polarities. The motion of the bundle is induced by the pulling forces of the underlying motors which stochastically attach to the monomers and, depending on their polarities, pull them in the right or left direction. We demonstrate that perfectly apolar chains consisting of equal numbers of monomers with positive and negative polarities may exhibit biased bidirectional motion with a nonzero drift. This effect is attributed to the elastic tension developed in the chain due to the action of the myosin motors. We also show that as a result of this tension, the attachment probability of the motors is greatly reduced and becomes strongly dependent on the length of the chain.

Structural basis for capping protein sequestration by myotrophin (V-1)

Capping protein (CP) is a ubiquitously expressed, heterodimeric 62-kDa protein that binds the barbed end of the actin filament with high affinity to block further filament elongation. Myotrophin (V-1) is a 13-kDa ankyrin repeat-containing protein that binds CP tightly, sequestering it in a totally inactive complex in vitro. Here, we elucidate the molecular interaction between CP and V-1 by NMR. Specifically, chemical shift mapping and intermolecular paramagnetic relaxation enhancement experiments reveal that the ankyrin loops of V-1, which are essential for V-1/CP interaction, bind the basic patch near the joint of the alpha tentacle of CP shown previously to drive most of the association of CP with and affinity for the barbed end. Consistently, site-directed mutagenesis of CP shows that V-1 and the strong electrostatic binding site for CP on the barbed end compete for this basic patch on CP. These results can explain how V-1 inactivates barbed end capping by CP and why V-1 is incapable of uncapping CP-capped actin filaments, the two signature biochemical activities of V-1.

Actin-bundling protein TRIOBP forms resilient rootlets of hair cell stereocilia essential for hearing

Inner ear hair cells detect sound through deflection of mechanosensory stereocilia. Each stereocilium is supported by a paracrystalline array of parallel actin filaments that are packed more densely at the base, forming a rootlet extending into the cell body. The function of rootlets and the molecules responsible for their formation are unknown. We found that TRIOBP, a cytoskeleton-associated protein mutated in human hereditary deafness DFNB28, is localized to rootlets. In vitro, purified TRIOBP isoform 4 protein organizes actin filaments into uniquely dense bundles reminiscent of rootlets but distinct from bundles formed by espin, an actin crosslinker in stereocilia. We generated mutant Triobp mice (Triobp(Deltaex8/Deltaex8)) that are profoundly deaf. Stereocilia of Triobp(Deltaex8/Deltaex8) mice develop normally but fail to form rootlets and are easier to deflect and damage. Thus, F-actin bundling by TRIOBP provides durability and rigidity for normal mechanosensitivity of stereocilia and may contribute to resilient cytoskeletal structures elsewhere.

Streptavidin 2D crystal substrates for visualizing biomolecular processes by atomic force microscopy

Flat substrate surfaces are a key to successful imaging of biological macromolecules by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Although usable substrate surfaces have been prepared for still imaging of immobilized molecules, surfaces that are more suitable have recently been required for dynamic imaging to accompany the progress of the scan speed of AFM. In fact, the state-of-the-art high-speed AFM has achieved temporal resolution of 30 ms, a capacity allowing us to trace molecular processes played by biological macromolecules. Here, we characterize three types of streptavidin two-dimensional crystals as substrates, concerning their qualities of surface roughness, uniformity, stability, and resistance to nonspecific protein adsorption. These crystal surfaces are commonly resistant to nonspecific protein adsorption, but exhibit differences in other properties to some extent. These differences must be taken into consideration, but these crystal surfaces are still useful for dynamic AFM imaging, as demonstrated by observation of calcium-induced changes in calmodulin, GroES binding to GroEL, and actin polymerization on the surfaces.

ADF/cofilin: a functional node in cell biology

Recent findings have significantly expanded our understanding of the regulation of actin-depolymerizing factor (ADF)/cofilin proteins and the profound multifaceted impact that these well-established regulators of actin dynamics have on cell biology. In this review we discuss new aspects of previously documented regulation, such as phosphorylation, but also cover novel recently established modes of regulation and functions of ADF (also known as destrin)/cofilin. We now understand that their activity responds to a vast array of inputs far greater than previously appreciated and that these proteins not only feed back to the crucially important dynamics of actin, but also to apoptosis cascades, phospholipid metabolism, and gene expression. We argue that this ability to respond to physiological changes by modulating those same changes makes the ADF/cofilin protein family a homeostatic regulator or 'functional node' in cell biology.

How depolymerization can promote polymerization: the case of actin and profilin

Rapid polymerization and depolymerization of actin filaments in response to extracellular stimuli is required for normal cell motility and development. Profilin is one of the most important actin-binding proteins; it regulates actin polymerization and interacts with many cytoskeletal proteins that link actin to extracellular membrane. The molecular mechanism of profilin has been extensively considered and debated in the literature for over two decades. Here we discuss several accepted hypotheses regarding the mechanism of profilin function as well as new recently emerged possibilities. Thermal noise is routine in molecular world and unsurprisingly, nature has found a way to utilize it. An increasing amount of theoretical and experimental research suggests that fluctuation-based processes play important roles in many cell events. Here we show how a fluctuation-based process of exchange diffusion is involved in the regulation of actin polymerization.

Actin filament segmentation using spatiotemporal active-surface and active-contour models

We introduce a novel algorithm for actin filament segmentation in a 2D TIRFM image sequence. We treat the 2D time-lapse sequence as a 3D image volume and propose an over-grown active surface model to segment the body of a filament on all slices simultaneously. In order to locate the two ends of the filament on the over-grown surface, a novel 2D spatiotemporal domain is created based on the resulting surface. Two 2D active contour models deform in this domain to locate the two filament ends accurately. Evaluation on TIRFM image sequences with very low SNRs and comparison with a previous method demonstrate the accuracy and robustness of this approach.

Actin dynamics: from nanoscale to microscale

The dynamic nature of actin in cells manifests itself constantly. Polymerization near the cell edge is balanced by depolymerization in the interior, externally induced actin polymerization is followed by depolymerization, and spontaneous oscillations of actin at the cell periphery are frequently seen. I discuss how mathematical modeling relates quantitative measures of actin dynamics to the rates of underlying molecular level processes. The dynamic properties addressed include the rate of actin assembly at the leading edge of a moving cell, the disassembly rates of intracellular actin networks, the polymerization time course in externally stimulated cells, and spontaneous spatiotemporal patterns formed by actin. Although several aspects of actin assembly have been clarified by increasingly sophisticated models, our understanding of rapid actin disassembly is limited, and the origins of nonmonotonic features in externally stimulated actin polymerization remain unclear. Theory has generated several concrete, testable hypotheses for the origins of spontaneous actin waves and cell-edge oscillations. The development and use of more biomimetic systems applicable to the geometry of a cell will be key to obtaining a quantitative understanding of actin dynamics in cells.

Toxoplasma gondii actin depolymerizing factor acts primarily to sequester G-actin

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite belonging to the phylum Apicomplexa. Parasites in this phylum utilize a unique process of motility termed gliding, which is dependent on parasite actin filaments. Surprisingly, 98% of parasite actin is maintained as G-actin, suggesting that filaments are rapidly assembled and turned over. Little is known about the regulated disassembly of filaments in the Apicomplexa. In higher eukaryotes, the related actin depolymerizing factor (ADF) and cofilin proteins are essential regulators of actin filament turnover. ADF is one of the few actin-binding proteins conserved in apicomplexan parasites. In this study we examined the mechanism by which T. gondii ADF (TgADF) regulates actin filament turnover. Unlike other members of the ADF/cofilin (AC) family, apicomplexan ADFs lack key F-actin binding sites. Surprisingly, this promotes their enhanced disassembly of actin filaments. Restoration of the C-terminal F-actin binding site to TgADF stabilized its interaction with filaments but reduced its net filament disassembly activity. Analysis of severing activity revealed that TgADF is a weak severing protein, requiring much higher concentrations than typical AC proteins. Investigation of TgADF interaction with T. gondii actin (TgACT) revealed that TgADF disassembled short TgACT oligomers. Kinetic and steady-state polymerization assays demonstrated that TgADF has strong monomer-sequestering activity, inhibiting TgACT polymerization at very low concentrations. Collectively these data indicate that TgADF promoted the efficient turnover of actin filaments via weak severing of filaments and strong sequestering of monomers. This suggests a dual role for TgADF in maintaining high G-actin concentrations and effecting rapid filament turnover.

Direct observation of the uncapping of capping protein-capped actin filaments by CARMIL homology domain 3

Bulk solution assays have shown that the isolated CARMIL homology 3 (CAH3) domain from mouse and Acanthamoeba CARMIL rapidly and potently restores actin polymerization when added to actin filaments previously capped with capping protein (CP). To demonstrate this putative uncapping activity directly, we used total internal reflection microscopy to observe single, CP-capped actin filaments before and after the addition of the CAH3 domain from mouse CARMIL-1 (mCAH3). The addition of mCAH3 rapidly restored the polymerization of individual capped filaments, consistent with uncapping. To verify uncapping, filaments were capped with recombinant mouse CP tagged with monomeric green fluorescent protein (mGFP-CP). Restoration of polymerization upon the addition of mCAH3 was immediately preceded by the complete dissociation of mGFP-CP from the filament end, confirming the CAH3-driven uncapping mechanism. Quantitative analyses showed that the percentage of capped filaments that uncapped increased as the concentration of mCAH3 was increased, reaching a maximum of approximately 90% at approximately 250 nm mCAH3. Moreover, the time interval between mCAH3 addition and uncapping decreased as the concentration of mCAH3 increased, with the half-time of CP at the barbed end decreasing from approximately 30 min without mCAH3 to approximately 10 s with a saturating amount of mCAH3. Finally, using mCAH3 tagged with mGFP, we obtained direct evidence that the complex of CP and mCAH3 has a small but measurable affinity for the barbed end, as inferred from previous studies and kinetic modeling. We conclude that the isolated CAH3 domain of CARMIL (and presumably the intact molecule as well) possesses the ability to uncap CP-capped actin filaments.

A mathematical model of actin filament turnover for fitting FRAP data

A novel mathematical model of the actin dynamics in living cells under steady-state conditions has been developed for fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments. As opposed to other FRAP fitting models, which use the average lifetime of actins in filaments and the actin turnover rate as fitting parameters, our model operates with unbiased actin association/dissociation rate constants and accounts for the filament length. The mathematical formalism is based on a system of stochastic differential equations. The derived equations were validated on synthetic theoretical data generated by a stochastic simulation algorithm adapted for the simulation of FRAP experiments. Consistent with experimental findings, the results of this work showed that (1) fluorescence recovery is a function of the average filament length, (2) the F-actin turnover and the FRAP are accelerated in the presence of actin nucleating proteins, (3) the FRAP curves may exhibit both a linear and non-linear behaviour depending on the parameters of actin polymerisation, and (4) our model resulted in more accurate parameter estimations of actin dynamics as compared with other FRAP fitting models. Additionally, we provide a computational tool that integrates the model and that can be used for interpretation of FRAP data on actin cytoskeleton.

Vinculin nucleates actin polymerization and modifies actin filament structure

Vinculin links integrins to the actin cytoskeleton by binding F-actin. Little is known with respect to how this interaction occurs or affects actin dynamics. Here we assess the consequence of the vinculin tail (VT) on actin dynamics by examining its binding to monomeric and filamentous yeast actins. VT causes pyrene-labeled G-actin to polymerize in low ionic strength buffer (G-buffer), conditions that normally do not promote actin polymerization. Analysis by electron microscopy shows that, under these conditions, the filaments form small bundles at low VT concentrations, which gradually increase in size until saturation occurs at a ratio of 2 VT:1 actin. Addition of VT to pyrene-labeled mutant yeast G-actin (S265C) produced a fluorescence excimer band, which requires a relatively normal filament geometry. In higher ionic strength polymerization-promoting F-buffer, substoichiometric amounts of VT accelerate the polymerization of pyrene-labeled WT actin. However, the amplitude of the pyrene fluorescence caused by actin polymerization is quenched as the VT concentration increases without an effect on net actin polymerization as determined by centrifugation assays. Finally, addition of VT to preformed pyrene-labeled S265C F-actin causes a concentration-dependent decrease in the maximum amplitude of the pyrene fluorescence band demonstrating the ability of VT to remodel the conformation of the actin filament. These observations support the idea that vinculin can link adhesion plaques to the cytoskeleton by initiating the formation of bundled actin filaments or by remodeling existing filaments.

The crystal structure of the C-terminus of adseverin reveals the actin-binding interface

Adseverin is a member of the calcium-regulated gelsolin superfamily of actin severing and capping proteins. Adseverin comprises 6 homologous domains (A1-A6), which share 60% identity with the 6 domains from gelsolin (G1-G6). Adseverin is truncated in comparison to gelsolin, lacking the C-terminal extension that masks the F-actin binding site in calcium-free gelsolin. Biochemical assays have indicated differences in the interaction of the C-terminal halves of adseverin and gelsolin with actin. Gelsolin contacts actin through a major site on G4 and a minor site on G6, whereas adseverin uses a site on A5. Here, we present the X-ray structure of the activated C-terminal half of adseverin (A4-A6). This structure is highly similar to that of the activated form of the C-terminal half of gelsolin (G4-G6), both in arrangement of domains and in the 3 bound calcium ions. Comparative analysis of the actin-binding surfaces observed in the G4-G6/actin structure suggests that adseverin in this conformation will also be able to interact with actin through A4 and A6, whereas the A5 surface is obscured. A single residue mutation in A4-A6 located at the predicted A4/actin interface completely abrogates actin sequestration. A model of calcium-free adseverin, constructed from the structure of gelsolin, predicts that in the absence of a gelsolin-like C-terminal extension the interaction between A2 and A6 provides the steric inhibition to prevent interaction with F-actin. We propose that calcium binding to the N terminus of adseverin dominates the activation process to expose the F-actin binding site on A2.

Computational analysis of viscoelastic properties of crosslinked actin networks

Mechanical force plays an important role in the physiology of eukaryotic cells whose dominant structural constituent is the actin cytoskeleton composed mainly of actin and actin crosslinking proteins (ACPs). Thus, knowledge of rheological properties of actin networks is crucial for understanding the mechanics and processes of cells. We used Brownian dynamics simulations to study the viscoelasticity of crosslinked actin networks. Two methods were employed, bulk rheology and segment-tracking rheology, where the former measures the stress in response to an applied shear strain, and the latter analyzes thermal fluctuations of individual actin segments of the network. It was demonstrated that the storage shear modulus (G') increases more by the addition of ACPs that form orthogonal crosslinks than by those that form parallel bundles. In networks with orthogonal crosslinks, as crosslink density increases, the power law exponent of G' as a function of the oscillation frequency decreases from 0.75, which reflects the transverse thermal motion of actin filaments, to near zero at low frequency. Under increasing prestrain, the network becomes more elastic, and three regimes of behavior are observed, each dominated by different mechanisms: bending of actin filaments, bending of ACPs, and at the highest prestrain tested (55%), stretching of actin filaments and ACPs. In the last case, only a small portion of actin filaments connected via highly stressed ACPs support the strain. We thus introduce the concept of a 'supportive framework,' as a subset of the full network, which is responsible for high elasticity. Notably, entropic effects due to thermal fluctuations appear to be important only at relatively low prestrains and when the average crosslinking distance is comparable to or greater than the persistence length of the filament. Taken together, our results suggest that viscoelasticity of the actin network is attributable to different mechanisms depending on the amount of prestrain.

Cofilin dissociates Arp2/3 complex and branches from actin filaments

BACKGROUND

Actin-based cellular motility requires spatially and temporally coordinated remodeling of a network of branched actin filaments. This study investigates how cofilin and Arp2/3 complex, two main players in the dendritic nucleation model, interact to produce sharp spatial transitions between densely branched filaments and long, unbranched filaments.

RESULTS

We found that cofilin binding reduces both the affinity of actin filaments for Arp2/3 complex and the stability of branches. We used fluorescence spectroscopy to measure the kinetics of cofilin association with filaments and the resulting dissociation of Arp2/3 complex and TIRF microscopy to visualize filament severing and the loss of actin filament branches. Cofilin severs filaments optimally when few actin subunits are occupied but dissociates branches rapidly only at higher occupancies. Effective debranching is nevertheless achieved, as a result of cooperative binding and reduced affinity of Arp2/3 complex for the filament, at cofilin concentrations below those required for direct competition.

CONCLUSIONS

Cofilin rapidly dissociates Arp2/3 complex and branches by direct competition for binding sites on the actin filament and by propagation of structural changes in the actin filament that reduce affinity for Arp2/3 complex.

Actin turnover is required for myosin-dependent mitochondrial movements in Arabidopsis root hairs

Background

Previous studies have shown that plant mitochondrial movements are myosin-based along actin filaments, which undergo continuous turnover by the exchange of actin subunits from existing filaments. Although earlier studies revealed that actin filament dynamics are essential for many functions of the actin cytoskeleton, there are little data connecting actin dynamics and mitochondrial movements.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We addressed the role of actin filament dynamics in the control of mitochondrial movements by treating cells with various pharmaceuticals that affect actin filament assembly and disassembly. Confocal microscopy of Arabidopsis thaliana root hairs expressing GFP-FABD2 as an actin filament reporter showed that mitochondrial distribution was in agreement with the arrangement of actin filaments in root hairs at different developmental stages. Analyses of mitochondrial trajectories and instantaneous velocities immediately following pharmacological perturbation of the cytoskeleton using variable-angle evanescent wave microscopy and/or spinning disk confocal microscopy revealed that mitochondrial velocities were regulated by myosin activity and actin filament dynamics. Furthermore, simultaneous visualization of mitochondria and actin filaments suggested that mitochondrial positioning might involve depolymerization of actin filaments on the surface of mitochondria.

Conclusions/Significance

Base on these results we propose a mechanism for the regulation of mitochondrial speed of movements, positioning, and direction of movements that combines the coordinated activity of myosin and the rate of actin turnover, together with microtubule dynamics, which directs the positioning of actin polymerization events.

AUTOMATED ACTIN FILAMENT SEGMENTATION, TRACKING AND TIP ELONGATION MEASUREMENTS BASED ON OPEN ACTIVE CONTOUR MODELS

This paper presents an automated method for actin filament segmentation and tracking for measuring tip elongation rates in Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy (TIRFM) images. The main contributions of the paper are: (i) we use a novel open active contour model for filament segmentation and tracking, which is fast and robust against noise; (ii) different strategies are proposed to solve the filament intersection problem, which is shown to be the main difficulty in filament tracking; and (iii) this fully automated method avoids the need of human interaction and thus reduces required time for the entire elongation measurement process on an image sequence. Application to experimental results demonstrated the robustness and effectiveness of this method.