201
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Lan RY, Mackay IR, Gershwin ME. Regulatory T cells in the prevention of mucosal inflammatory diseases: patrolling the border. J Autoimmun 2007; 29:272-80. [PMID: 17889505 PMCID: PMC2692919 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2007.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Regulatory T (Treg) cells are important contributors to the maintenance of immune tolerance in the periphery, and deficiency of Tregs is associated with various immunopathic diseases. Murine models of autoimmune and autoinflammatory disorders have helped to elucidate how Tregs are involved in these diseases. A feature in common between human and mice that lack one or another of the key Treg subsets is the occurrence of mucosal inflammation. The relatively fragile mucosal surface represents a complex system that is normally well equipped to ward off harmful pathogens yet at the same time is inhibitory to destructive inflammatory responses to biologically needed (probiotic) microorganisms, or other common environmental antigens e.g. nutrients. We here discuss the importance of Tregs in maintaining tolerance at mucosal surfaces and the outcomes of deficiency of Treg function. The intestinal tract and its inflammatory diseases provide the "point of departure" for discussion, but similar considerations could apply to other mucosal linings exposed to the environment such as other members of the digestive system. However, the lungs, bile ducts, urogenital tract and other mucosal surfaces are susceptible to poorly understood inflammatory states that possibly depend on dysfunction of Treg cells. Finally there are now potential therapies predicated on reconstitution of effective function of Treg cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Y. Lan
- Division of Rheumatology/Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Ian R. Mackay
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - M. Eric Gershwin
- Division of Rheumatology/Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616
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202
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Li R, Perez N, Karumuthil-Melethil S, Prabhakar BS, Holterman MJ, Vasu C. Enhanced engagement of CTLA-4 induces antigen-specific CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ and CD4+CD25- TGF-beta 1+ adaptive regulatory T cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 179:5191-203. [PMID: 17911604 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.8.5191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
CTLA-4 is a critical negative regulator of T cell response and is instrumental in maintaining immunological tolerance. In this article, we report that enhanced selective engagement of CTLA-4 on T cells by Ag-presenting dendritic cells resulted in the induction of Ag-specific CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) and CD4(+)CD25(-)TGF-beta1(+) adaptive Tregs. These cells were CD62L(low) and hyporesponsive to stimulation with cognate Ag but demonstrated a superior ability to suppress Ag-specific effector T cell response compared with their CD62L(high) counterparts. Importantly, treatment of mice with autoimmune thyroiditis using mouse thyroglobulin (mTg)-pulsed anti-CTLA-4 agonistic Ab-coated DCs, which results in a dominant engagement of CTLA-4 upon self-Ag presentation, not only suppressed thyroiditis but also prevented reemergence of the disease upon rechallenge with mTg. Further, the disease suppression was associated with significantly reduced mTg-specific T cell and Ab responses. Collectively, our results showed an important role for selective CTLA-4 signaling in the induction of adaptive Tregs and suggested that approaches that allow dominant CTLA-4 engagement concomitant with Ag-specific TCR ligation can be used for targeted therapy.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Bispecific/metabolism
- Antigens, CD/immunology
- Antigens, CD/metabolism
- Antigens, CD/physiology
- Antigens, Differentiation/immunology
- Antigens, Differentiation/metabolism
- Antigens, Differentiation/physiology
- CTLA-4 Antigen
- Cells, Cultured
- Coculture Techniques
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/biosynthesis
- Female
- Forkhead Transcription Factors/biosynthesis
- Immune Tolerance
- Interleukin-2 Receptor alpha Subunit/biosynthesis
- L-Selectin/biosynthesis
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred CBA
- Mice, Transgenic
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
- Transforming Growth Factor beta1/biosynthesis
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruobing Li
- Department of Surgery, University of Illinois, Chicago 60612, USA
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203
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Bommireddy R, Doetschman T. TGFbeta1 and Treg cells: alliance for tolerance. Trends Mol Med 2007; 13:492-501. [PMID: 17977791 PMCID: PMC2805009 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2007.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2007] [Revised: 08/22/2007] [Accepted: 08/30/2007] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor beta1 (TGFbeta1), an important pleiotropic, immunoregulatory cytokine, uses distinct signaling mechanisms in lymphocytes to affect T-cell homeostasis, regulatory T (Treg)-cell and effector-cell function and tumorigenesis. Defects in TGFbeta1 expression or its signaling in T cells correlate with the onset of several autoimmune diseases. TGFbeta1 prevents abnormal T-cell activation through the modulation of Ca2+-calcineurin signaling in a Caenorhabditis elegans Sma and Drosophila Mad proteins (SMAD)3 and SMAD4-independent manner; however, in Treg cells, its effects are mediated, at least in part, through SMAD signaling. TGFbeta1 also acts as a pro-inflammatory cytokine and induces interleukin (IL)-17-producing pathogenic T-helper cells (Th IL-17 cells) synergistically during an inflammatory response in which IL-6 is produced. Here, we will review TGFbeta1 and its signaling in T cells with an emphasis on the regulatory arm of immune tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramireddy Bommireddy
- BIO5 Institute, University of Arizona, PO Box 245217, Tucson, AZ 85724-5217, USA.
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204
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Resistance to apoptosis and expansion of regulatory T cells in relation to the detection of circulating tumor cells in patients with metastatic epithelial cancer. J Clin Immunol 2007; 28:107-14. [PMID: 17939021 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-007-9139-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2007] [Accepted: 09/19/2007] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells may be crucial in the development of T cell tolerance to malignancies and contribute to immune dysfunctions. We investigated the percentage, activity, and onset of apoptosis of T cell subpopulations by multicolor flow cytometry in metastatic epithelial cancer patients compared to normal controls. Furthermore, a possible relationship between the presence of circulating tumor cells detected by immunocytochemistry and immune cell abnormalities was evaluated. Our study demonstrated a significantly elevated proportion of regulatory T cells in cancer patients (p < 0.001). In contrast to all other T cell subpopulations, regulatory T cells showed comparable Annexin V-binding characteristics in patients and normal controls. No relationship between the detection of circulating tumor cells and immune dysfunction was observed. These results indicate that cancer patients have a higher number of regulatory T cells with resistance to apoptotic stimuli partly responsible for immune dysfunctions as often observed in cancer patients.
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205
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Daniel C, Sartory NA, Zahn N, Radeke HH, Stein JM. Immune modulatory treatment of trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid colitis with calcitriol is associated with a change of a T helper (Th) 1/Th17 to a Th2 and regulatory T cell profile. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007; 324:23-33. [PMID: 17911375 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.107.127209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 341] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of recent studies testify that calcitriol alone or in combination with corticosteroids exerts strong immune modulatory activity. As a new approach, we evaluated the protolerogenic potential of calcitriol and dexamethasone in acute T helper (Th)1-mediated colitis in mice. A rectal enema of trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) (100 mg/kg) was applied to BALB/c mice. Calcitriol and/or dexamethasone were administered i.p. from days 0 to 3 or 3 to 5 following the instillation of the haptenating agent. Assessment of colitis severity was performed daily. Colon tissue was analyzed macroscopically and microscopically, and myeloperoxidase activity, as well as cytokine levels [tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interferon-gamma, interleukin (IL)-12p70, IL-1beta, IL-10, IL-4] were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, T-bet, GATA family of transcription factors 3, a Th2 master regulator (GATA3), Foxp3, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA4), IL-23p19 and IL-17 expression by immunoblot analysis. The combination of the steroids most effectively reduced the clinical and histopathologic severity of TNBS colitis. Th1-related parameters were down-regulated, whereas Th2 markers like IL-4 and GATA3 were up-regulated. Apart from known steroid effects, calcitriol in particular promoted regulatory T cell profiles as indicated by a marked increase of IL-10, TGFbeta, FoxP3, and CTLA4. Furthermore, analysis of dendritic cell mediators responsible for a proinflammatory differentiation of T cells revealed a significant reduction of IL-12p70 and IL23p19 as well as IL-6 and IL-17. Thus, our data support a rationale for a steroid-sparing, clinical application of calcitriol derivatives in inflammatory bowel disease. Furthermore they suggest that early markers of inflammatory dendritic cell and Th17 differentiation qualify as new target molecules for both calcitriol and highly selective immune-modulating vitamin D analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Daniel
- FEBG, First Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Clinical Nutrition, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany
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206
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Abstract
The achievement of immune tolerance, a state of specific unresponsiveness to the donor graft, has the potential to overcome the current major limitations to progress in organ transplantation, namely late graft loss, organ shortage and the toxicities of chronic nonspecific immumnosuppressive therapy. Advances in our understanding of immunological processes, mechanisms of rejection and tolerance have led to encouraging developments in animal models, which are just beginning to be translated into clinical pilot studies. These advances are reviewed here and the appropriate timing for clinical trials is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sykes
- Transplantation Biology Research Center, Bone Marrow Transplantation Section, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129, USA.
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207
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Singh RP, La Cava A, Wong M, Ebling F, Hahn BH. CD8+ T cell-mediated suppression of autoimmunity in a murine lupus model of peptide-induced immune tolerance depends on Foxp3 expression. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:7649-57. [PMID: 17548601 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.12.7649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease caused by autoantibodies, including IgG anti-DNA. New Zealand Black/New Zealand White F(1) female mice, a model of spontaneous polygenic systemic lupus erythematosus, tolerized with an artificial peptide (pConsensus) based on anti-DNA IgG sequences containing MHC class I and class II T cell determinants, develop regulatory CD4+CD25+ T cells and CD8+ inhibitory T cells (CD8+ Ti), both of which suppress autoantibody production. CD8+ Ti inhibit primarily via secretion of TGF-beta. In the present study, we show that the inhibitory function of CD8+ T cells from tolerized mice is sustained for up to 8 wk and at all times depends on expression of Foxp3. Both CD28-positive and CD28-negative CD8+ T cells contain inhibitory cells, but the expression of mRNA for Foxp3 and for TGF-beta is higher and lasts longer in the CD28- subset. In vitro addition of TGF-beta (in the presence of IL-2) induces Foxp3 expression in a dose-response manner. Gene inhibition or blockade with small interfering RNA of Foxp3 abrogates the ability of the CD8+ Ti to inhibit anti-DNA production and the proliferation of CD4+ Th cells. Moreover, a significant correlation between expression of Foxp3 and ability of CD8+ Ti to secrete TGF-beta is observed. Therefore, CD8+ Ti in this system of tolerance are similar to CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in their dependence on expression of Foxp3, and there may be a bidirectional Foxp3/TGF-beta autocrine loop that determines the ability of the CD8+ T cells to control autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ram Pyare Singh
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California-Los Angeles, 1001 Veteran Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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208
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Selvaraj RK, Geiger TL. A kinetic and dynamic analysis of Foxp3 induced in T cells by TGF-beta. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:7667-77. [PMID: 17548603 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.12.7667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
TGF-beta induces Foxp3 expression in stimulated T cells. These Foxp3 cells (induced regulatory T cells (iTreg)) share functional and therapeutic properties with thymic-derived Foxp3 regulatory T cells (natural regulatory T cells (nTreg)). We performed a single-cell analysis to better characterize the regulation of Foxp3 in iTreg in vitro and assess their dynamics after transfer in vivo. TGF-beta up-regulated Foxp3 in CD4(+)Foxp3 T cells only when added within a 2- to 3-day window of CD3/CD28 stimulation. Up to 90% conversion occurred, beginning after 1-2 days of treatment. Foxp3 expression strictly required TCR stimulation but not costimulation and was independent of cell cycling. Removal of TGF-beta led to a loss of Foxp3 expression after an approximately 4-day lag. Most iTreg transferred into wild-type mice down-regulated Foxp3 within 2 days, and these Foxp3 cells were concentrated in the blood, spleen, lung, and liver. Few of the Foxp3 cells were detected by 28 days after transfer. However, some Foxp3 cells persisted even to this late time point, and these preferentially localized to the lymph nodes and bone marrow. CXCR4 was preferentially expressed on Foxp3 iTreg within the bone marrow, and CD62L was preferentially expressed on those in the lymph nodes. Like transferred nTreg and in contrast with revertant Foxp3 cells, Foxp3 iTreg retained CD25 and glucocorticoid-induced TNFR family-related gene. Thus, Foxp3 expression in naïve-stimulated T cells is transient in vitro, dependent on TGF-beta activity within a highly restricted window after activation and continuous TGF-beta presence. In vivo, a subset of transferred iTreg persist long term, potentially providing a lasting source for regulatory activity after therapeutic administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramesh K Selvaraj
- Department of Pathology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 332 North Lauderdale Street, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
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209
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Zhang L, Zhao Y. The regulation of Foxp3 expression in regulatory CD4(+)CD25(+)T cells: multiple pathways on the road. J Cell Physiol 2007; 211:590-7. [PMID: 17311282 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Treg cells) have been well documented to have a crucial physiological role in preventing the development of autoimmune diseases and keeping self-tolerance. Foxp3, a recently identified member of the forkhead transcription factors, serves as a master regulator for the development and function of CD4(+)CD25(+)Treg cells. Though it is well defined that Foxp3 expression is sufficient to program CD4(+)CD25(+)Treg cell development, the physiological factors initiating intracellular Foxp3 expression remain poorly understood so far. In the present manuscript, we try to summarize the recent advances regarding the regulatory roles of T-cell receptor (TCR), co-stimulatory molecules, interleukin-2 (IL-2), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) and beyond pathways on Foxp3 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lianjun Zhang
- Transplantation Biology Research Division, State Key Laboratory of Biomembrane and Membrane Biotechnology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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210
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Couper KN, Blount DG, de Souza JB, Suffia I, Belkaid Y, Riley EM. Incomplete depletion and rapid regeneration of Foxp3+ regulatory T cells following anti-CD25 treatment in malaria-infected mice. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2007; 178:4136-46. [PMID: 17371969 PMCID: PMC2235934 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.7.4136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Investigation of the role of regulatory T cells (Treg) in model systems is facilitated by their depletion using anti-CD25 Abs, but there has been considerable debate about the effectiveness of this strategy. In this study, we have compared the depletion and repopulation of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ Treg in uninfected and malaria-infected mice using 7D4 and/or PC61 anti-CD25 Abs. We find that numbers and percentages of CD25(high) cells, but not Foxp3+ cells, are transiently reduced after 7D4 treatment, whereas treatment with PC61 alone or in combination with 7D4 (7D4 plus PC61) reduces but does not eliminate Foxp3+ cells for up to 2 wk. Importantly, all protocols fail to eliminate significant populations of CD25-Foxp3+ or CD25(low)Foxp3+ cells, which retain potent regulatory capacity. By adoptive transfer we show that repopulation of the spleen by CD25(high)Foxp3+ cells results from the re-expression of CD25 on peripheral populations of CD25-Foxp3+ but not from the conversion of peripheral Foxp3-) cells. CD25(high)Foxp3+ repopulation occurs more rapidly in 7D4-treated mice than in 7D4 plus PC61-treated mice, reflecting ongoing clearance of emergent CD25+Foxp3+ cells by persistent PC61 Ab. However, in 7D4 plus PC61-treated mice undergoing acute malaria infection, repopulation of the spleen by CD25+Foxp3+ cells occurs extremely rapidly, with malaria infection driving proliferation and CD25 expression in peripheral CD4+CD25-Foxp3+ cells and/or conversion of CD4+CD25-Foxp3- cells. Finally, we reveal an essential role for IL-2 for the re-expression of CD25 by Foxp3+ cells after anti-CD25 treatment and observe that TGF-beta is required, in the absence of CD25 and IL-2, to maintain splenic Foxp3+ cell numbers and a normal ratio of Treg:non-Treg cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin N. Couper
- Immunology Unit, Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Daniel G. Blount
- Immunology Unit, Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - J. Brian de Souza
- Immunology Unit, Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Pathology, University College London Medical School, 46 Cleveland Street, London, W1T 4JF, UK
| | - Isabelle Suffia
- Mucosal Immunology Unit, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Yasmine Belkaid
- Mucosal Immunology Unit, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Eleanor M. Riley
- Immunology Unit, Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
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211
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Veronese F, Rotman S, Smith RN, Pelle TD, Farrell ML, Kawai T, Benedict Cosimi A, Colvin RB. Pathological and clinical correlates of FOXP3+ cells in renal allografts during acute rejection. Am J Transplant 2007; 7:914-22. [PMID: 17286616 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2006.01704.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The localization and significance of regulatory T cells (Treg) in allograft rejection is of considerable clinical and immunological interest. We analyzed 80 human renal transplant biopsies (including seven donor biopsies) with a double immunohistochemical marker for the Treg transcription factor FOXP3, combined with a second marker for CD4 or CD8. Quantitative FOXP3 cell counts were performed and analyzed for clinical and pathologic correlates. FOXP3(+) cells were present in the interstitium in acute cellular rejection (ACR) type I and II, at a greater density than in acute humoral rejection or CNI toxicity (p < 0.01). Most FOXP3(+) cells were CD4(+) (96%); a minority expressed CD8. FOXP3(+)CD4(+) cells were concentrated in the tubules (p < 0.001), suggesting a selective attraction or generation at that site. Considering only patients with ACR, a higher density of FOXP3(+) correlated with HLA class II match (p = 0.03), but paradoxically with worse graft survival. We conclude that infiltration of FOXP3(+) cells occurs in ACR to a greater degree than in humoral rejection, however, within the ACR group, no beneficial effect on outcome was evident. Tregs concentrate in tubules, probably contributing to FOXP3 mRNA in urine; the significance and pathogenesis of 'Treg tubulitis' remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Veronese
- Pathology and Surgical Services, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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212
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Zheng SG, Wang J, Wang P, Gray JD, Horwitz DA. IL-2 is essential for TGF-beta to convert naive CD4+CD25- cells to CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells and for expansion of these cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:2018-27. [PMID: 17277105 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.4.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 461] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
IL-2 and TGF-beta both have important roles in the induction and maintenance of immunologic tolerance, but whether these cytokines act separately or together to achieve this effect is poorly understood. Although others have reported that IL-2 can directly enhance forkhead box protein P3 (Foxp3) transcription factor expression by natural CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells, in this study, we report that the role of IL-2 on the generation of peripheral regulatory CD4(+) cells is indirect. Ab neutralization studies and experiments with IL-2-deficient mice have revealed that IL-2 is required for TGF-beta to induce naive CD4(+)CD25(-) cells to become CD25(+) and express Foxp3, and develop the characteristic properties of CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory cells. This effect of IL-2 on the generation and expansion of these adaptive Foxp3(+) regulatory cells is nonredundant, but IL-4, IL-7, and IL-15, other common gamma-chain cytokines, could sustain Foxp3 expression. Because subjects with autoimmune diseases often have defects in the production of IL-2 and/or TGF-beta, the generation of autologous T regulatory cells ex vivo with these cytokines for transfer in vivo may have considerable therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Guo Zheng
- Division of Rheumatology and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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213
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Daniel C, Sartory N, Zahn N, Geisslinger G, Radeke HH, Stein JM. FTY720 ameliorates Th1-mediated colitis in mice by directly affecting the functional activity of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:2458-68. [PMID: 17277153 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.4.2458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Following the present concepts, the synthetic sphingosine analog of myriocin FTY720 alters migration and homing of lymphocytes via sphingosine 1-phosphate receptors. However, several studies indicate that the immunosuppressive properties of FTY720 may alternatively be due to tolerogenic activities via modulation of dendritic cell differentiation or based on direct effects on CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells (Treg). As Treg play an important role for the cure of inflammatory colitis, we used the Th1-mediated 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) colitis model to address the therapeutic potential of FTY720 in vivo. A rectal enema of TNBS was given to BALB/c mice. FTY720 was administered i.p. from days 0 to 3 or 3 to 5. FTY720 substantially reduced all clinical, histopathologic, macroscopic, and microscopic parameters of colitis analyzed. The therapeutic effects of FTY720 were associated with a down-regulation of IL-12p70 and subsequent Th1 cytokines. Importantly, FTY720 treatment resulted in a prominent up-regulation of FoxP3, IL-10, TGFbeta, and CTLA4. Supporting the hypothesis that FTY720 directly affects functional activity of CD4(+)CD25(+) Treg, we measured a significant increase of CD25 and FoxP3 expression in isolated lamina propria CD4(+) T cells of FTY720-treated mice. The impact of FTY720 on Treg induction was further confirmed by concomitant in vivo blockade of CTLA4 or IL-10R which significantly abrogated its therapeutic activity. In conclusion, our data provide clear evidence that in addition to its well-established effects on migration FTY720 leads to a specific down-regulation of proinflammatory signals while simultaneously inducing functional activity of CD4(+)CD25(+) Treg. Thus, FTY720 may offer a promising new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Daniel
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Entwicklung und Sicherheit-ZAFES, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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214
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Gonzalez-Rey E, Chorny A, Varela N, O'Valle F, Delgado M. Therapeutic effect of urocortin on collagen-induced arthritis by down-regulation of inflammatory and Th1 responses and induction of regulatory T cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 56:531-43. [PMID: 17265488 DOI: 10.1002/art.22394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the potential therapeutic action of the immunomodulatory neuropeptide urocortin (UCN) in an experimental model of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHODS After disease onset, DBA/1J mice with collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) were treated with UCN, and the incidence, severity (clinical score), and joint histopathology were evaluated. The inflammatory response was determined by measuring the levels of different mediators of inflammation (cytokines and chemokines) in the joints and sera. The Th1-mediated autoreactive response was evaluated by determining the proliferative response and cytokine profile of draining lymph node cells stimulated with the autoantigen and by assaying the content of serum autoantibodies. The number of regulatory CD4+,CD25+ T cells and their capacity to suppress self-reactive Th1 cells were determined in joints and lymph nodes. RESULTS UCN treatment significantly reduced the incidence and severity of CIA, completely abrogating joint swelling and cartilage and bone destruction. The therapeutic effect of UCN was associated with a striking reduction of the 2 deleterious components of the disease: the Th1-driven autoimmune response and the inflammatory response. UCN also induced the generation and/or activation of efficient interleukin-10/transforming growth factor beta1-producing Treg cells in arthritis with the capacity to suppress the autoreactive response and to restore immune tolerance, thus playing a pivotal role in the therapeutic effect of UCN. CONCLUSION Our findings provide a powerful rationale for assessing the efficacy of UCN as a novel multistep therapeutic approach to the treatment of RA in humans.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/chemically induced
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/drug therapy
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/pathology
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/physiopathology
- CD4 Antigens/metabolism
- Chemokines/metabolism
- Collagen
- Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone/pharmacology
- Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone/therapeutic use
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Disease Models, Animal
- Down-Regulation/drug effects
- Interleukin-2 Receptor alpha Subunit/metabolism
- Joints/drug effects
- Joints/metabolism
- Joints/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred DBA
- Severity of Illness Index
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/pathology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/physiology
- Th1 Cells/drug effects
- Th1 Cells/immunology
- Th1 Cells/pathology
- Th1 Cells/physiology
- Urocortins
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215
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Coombes JL, Maloy KJ. Control of intestinal homeostasis by regulatory T cells and dendritic cells. Semin Immunol 2007; 19:116-26. [PMID: 17320411 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2007.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2006] [Accepted: 01/08/2007] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Many different pathways contribute to the maintenance of tolerance to harmless antigens in the intestine. When these important pathways are compromised, chronic intestinal inflammation can develop. In particular, naturally occurring CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells have been shown to play an important role in the prevention and cure of colitis in animal models of intestinal inflammation. These regulatory T cell responses may be influenced by the local environment in the intestine. For example, functionally specialised populations of dendritic cells exist in the intestine which may favour regulatory type responses. Understanding how these pathways intersect may lead to the development of more specific therapies for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine L Coombes
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
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216
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Abstract
Type I diabetes mellitus (T1D) is due to a loss of immune tolerance to islet antigen and thus, there is intense interest in developing therapies that can re-establish it. Tolerance is maintained by complex mechanisms that include inhibitory molecules and several types of regulatory T cells (Tr). A major historical question is whether gene therapy can be employed to generate Tr cells. This review shows that gene transfer of immunoregulatory molecules can prevent T1D and other autoimmune diseases. In our studies, non-viral gene transfer is enhanced by in vivo electroporation (EP). This technique can be used to perform DNA vaccination against islet cell antigens and when combined with appropriate immune ligands results in the generation of Tr cells and protection against T1D. In vivo EP can also be applied for non-immune therapy of diabetes. It can be used to deliver protein drugs such as glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), leptin or transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta). These act in T1D or type II diabetes (T2D) by restoring glucose homeostasis, promoting islet cell survival and growth or improving wound healing and other complications. Furthermore, we show that in large animals EP can deliver peptide hormones, such as growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH). We conclude that the non-viral gene therapy and EP represent a safe and efficacious approach with clinical potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Prud'homme
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, St Michael's Hospital and University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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217
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Abstract
The T help 1 (Th1) and Th2 cell classification have provided the framework for understanding CD4(+) T cell biology and the interplay between innate and adaptive immunity for almost two decades. Recent studies have defined a previously unknown arm of the CD4(+) T cell effector response, the Th17 lineage, which promises to change our understanding of immune regulation, immune pathogenesis and host defense. The factors that specify differentiation of IL-17 producing effector T cells from naïve T cell precursors are being rapidly discovered and are providing insights into mechanisms by which signals from cells of the innate immune system guide alternative pathways of Th1, Th2, or Th17 development. In this review, we will focus on recent studies that have identified new subsets of Th cells, new insights regarding the induced generation and differentiation mechanisms of Th17 cells and immune regulatory effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujing Bi
- State Key laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, National Center for Biomedical Analysis, Army Center for Microbial Detection and Research, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences (AMMS), Beijing, China
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218
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Tournoy KG, Provoost S, Van Hove C, Joos G. The role of immune tolerance in asthma pathogenesis. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2006; 6:437-43. [PMID: 16899207 DOI: 10.1007/s11882-996-0018-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Immune-mediated tolerance encompasses a wide spectrum of mechanisms that can prevent unnecessary and potentially harmful inflammatory responses. An increasing number of scientific publications provide proof for the concept that an impairment of immune-tolerance mechanisms might be causally related to the development of unwanted Th2-driven, allergen-induced airway diseases. In this review, we discuss immune tolerance and the evidence supporting its role in asthma pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt G Tournoy
- Ghent University Hospital, Department of Respiratory Diseases, Gent, Belgium.
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219
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Bodor J, Fehervari Z, Diamond B, Sakaguchi S. Regulatory T cell-mediated suppression: potential role of ICER. J Leukoc Biol 2006; 81:161-7. [PMID: 17028200 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0706474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
How regulatory T (TR) cells dampen T cell responses remains unclear. Multiple modes of action have been proposed, including cell contact-dependent and/or cytokine-dependent mechanisms. Suppression may involve direct contact between TR cells and responder T cells. Alternatively, TR cells may act on dendritic cells to reduce their ability to prime T cells by modulating costimulation, inducing the secretion of suppressive cytokines or the increase of tryptophan metabolism. Here, we review emerging, novel mechanisms involved in contact-dependent, TR-mediated suppression of IL-2 production in responder CD25- T lymphocytes and the potential involvement of inducible cAMP early repressor (ICER) in this suppression. Finally, cytokines such as TGF-beta and IL-10, produced by TR cells or other cells, may exert local suppression, which can be conveyed by basic mechanism(s) acting in a similar manner as contact-dependent, TR-mediated suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef Bodor
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, 1130 St. Nicholas Ave., New York, NY 10032, USA.
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220
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Abstract
Early studies of mice subjected to neonatal thymectomy and analyses of adoptive T-cell transfer into lymphopenic hosts led to the identification of a specialized subset of regulatory CD4+ T cells capable of suppressing various manifestations of autoimmunity. Recently, a combination of genetic, molecular, and traditional cellular approaches provided novel powerful means to investigate the biology of these cells. Here, we review earlier and current work from our laboratory, establishing a dedicated function for the transcription factor Foxp3 in the process of regulatory T-cell lineage commitment and a role for TCR- and cytokine-mediated signals in regulation of Foxp3 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong M Kim
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Immunology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA.
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221
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Yong Z, Chang L, Mei YX, Yi L. Role and mechanisms of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in the induction and maintenance of transplantation tolerance. Transpl Immunol 2006; 17:120-9. [PMID: 17306743 DOI: 10.1016/j.trim.2006.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2006] [Revised: 08/22/2006] [Accepted: 09/08/2006] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
To gain transplantation tolerance between donor organs and hosts is the ultimate goal of all sorts of organ transplantations. Induction of regulatory T cells has been demonstrated to lead to transplantation tolerance. This paper will review subsets of regulatory T cells, the role and mechanisms of CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) in graft rejection and tolerance, pathway used by Tregs to recognized alloantigens, pathways of Tregs homing into the graft and effects of immunosuppression on Tregs. It was well known that Tregs play a pivotal role in transplantation tolerance. The mechanisms by which Tregs exert their regulatory effect in the induction and maintenance of transplantation tolerance, anthropogenically, consist of physical cell-to-cell contact with potential target cells, autocrine and paracrine properties. ICAM-1, TGF-beta, CTLA-4, GITR and OX40 (CD134), etc. are involved in the regulatory function of Tregs through cell-to-cell contact mechanism. IL-10 and TGF-beta are two important soluble mediators involved in the autocrine mechanism by which Tregs exert their regulatory function. Paracrine properties refer to re-educate potentially destructive alloresponsive T cells to gain regulatory function. All that discussed above could illustrate, at least partially, how naturally occurring Tregs exert their regulatory function in vivo as they constitute only 5-10% of peripheral CD4(+) T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhang Yong
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Medical Collage, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi Province, China
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222
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Glinka Y, Chang Y, Prud'homme GJ. Protective Regulatory T Cell Generation in Autoimmune Diabetes by DNA Covaccination with Islet Antigens and a Selective CTLA-4 Ligand. Mol Ther 2006; 14:578-87. [PMID: 16790365 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2006.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2005] [Revised: 03/16/2006] [Accepted: 03/24/2006] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA vaccination of autoimmune diabetes-prone NOD mice with unmodified target islet antigens, i.e., preproinsulin (PPIns) or glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65), is poorly protective. However, in this study, we demonstrate protection against disease by covaccination with a mutant B7-1 molecule (B7-1wa) that binds the negative T cell regulator CTLA-4 (CD152), but not CD28. Codelivery of plasmids encoding a PPIns-GAD65 fusion construct and B7-1wa protected against both insulitis and diabetes. In vitro, the T cells of covaccinated mice had negative responses to both insulin and GAD65, and this was restored by adding blocking antibodies to transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF-beta1), suggesting a role for this cytokine. Adoptive transfer experiments revealed that DNA vaccination generated protective CD4(+) regulatory T cells (Tr) of either CD25(+) or CD25(-) phenotype. Furthermore, vaccinated mice had increased numbers of T cells with Tr-associated markers, such as CTLA-4, Foxp3, and membrane-bound TGF-beta1. Tr cells inhibited the responses of diabetogenic T cells to islet antigens, and depletion of T cells expressing membrane-bound TGF-beta1 abolished the suppressive effect. Thus, selective engagement of CTLA-4 during islet-antigen DNA vaccination induces Tr cells that protect against this autoimmune disease.
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MESH Headings
- Adoptive Transfer
- Animals
- Antigens, CD
- Antigens, Differentiation/metabolism
- Biomarkers
- CTLA-4 Antigen
- Cell Differentiation
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- DNA/genetics
- DNA/immunology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/genetics
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/immunology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/pathology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/prevention & control
- Female
- Immunotherapy
- Islets of Langerhans/immunology
- Islets of Langerhans/metabolism
- Ligands
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred NOD
- Phenotype
- Receptors, Interleukin-2/metabolism
- Substrate Specificity
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
- Vaccines, DNA/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, DNA/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Yelena Glinka
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto and St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5B 1W8
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223
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Ansari MJ, Sayegh MH. Costimulation couture: a designer approach to regulating autoimmunity. J Clin Invest 2006; 116:2080-3. [PMID: 16886054 PMCID: PMC1523390 DOI: 10.1172/jci29455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Negative or inhibitory costimulatory pathways regulate T cell activation and play a role in peripheral tolerance. Targeting these pathways harnesses the physiologic mechanisms of regulating autoimmunity and could prove beneficial for the therapy of autoimmune diseases. However, attempts at targeting these pathways have been fraught with difficulties. In this issue of the JCI, Fife et al. describe a creative approach for targeting CTL-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) on activated T cells via genetically engineered B cells to prevent autoimmune diabetes in the NOD mouse (see the related article beginning on page 2252). Novel "designer" strategies targeting negative costimulatory pathways provide reasons for optimism in the search for a cure for devastating autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Javeed Ansari
- Transplantation Research Center, Renal Division, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Children's Hospital Boston, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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