201
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Der Sarkissian C, Ermini L, Jónsson H, Alekseev AN, Crubezy E, Shapiro B, Orlando L. Shotgun microbial profiling of fossil remains. Mol Ecol 2014; 23:1780-98. [PMID: 24612293 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Revised: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Millions to billions of DNA sequences can now be generated from ancient skeletal remains thanks to the massive throughput of next-generation sequencing platforms. Except in cases of exceptional endogenous DNA preservation, most of the sequences isolated from fossil material do not originate from the specimen of interest, but instead reflect environmental organisms that colonized the specimen after death. Here, we characterize the microbial diversity recovered from seven c. 200- to 13 000-year-old horse bones collected from northern Siberia. We use a robust, taxonomy-based assignment approach to identify the microorganisms present in ancient DNA extracts and quantify their relative abundance. Our results suggest that molecular preservation niches exist within ancient samples that can potentially be used to characterize the environments from which the remains are recovered. In addition, microbial community profiling of the seven specimens revealed site-specific environmental signatures. These microbial communities appear to comprise mainly organisms that colonized the fossils recently. Our approach significantly extends the amount of useful data that can be recovered from ancient specimens using a shotgun sequencing approach. In future, it may be possible to correlate, for example, the accumulation of postmortem DNA damage with the presence and/or abundance of particular microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Der Sarkissian
- Centre for Geogenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 5-7, Copenhagen K, 1350, Denmark
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202
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King SR, McLellan H, Boevink PC, Armstrong MR, Bukharova T, Sukarta O, Win J, Kamoun S, Birch PR, Banfield MJ. Phytophthora infestans RXLR effector PexRD2 interacts with host MAPKKK ε to suppress plant immune signaling. THE PLANT CELL 2014; 26:1345-59. [PMID: 24632534 PMCID: PMC4001388 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.113.120055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Revised: 01/24/2014] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades are key players in plant immune signaling pathways, transducing the perception of invading pathogens into effective defense responses. Plant pathogenic oomycetes, such as the Irish potato famine pathogen Phytophthora infestans, deliver RXLR effector proteins to plant cells to modulate host immune signaling and promote colonization. Our understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which these effectors act in plant cells is limited. Here, we report that the P. infestans RXLR effector PexRD2 interacts with the kinase domain of MAPKKKε, a positive regulator of cell death associated with plant immunity. Expression of PexRD2 or silencing MAPKKKε in Nicotiana benthamiana enhances susceptibility to P. infestans. We show that PexRD2 perturbs signaling pathways triggered by or dependent on MAPKKKε. By contrast, homologs of PexRD2 from P. infestans had reduced or no interaction with MAPKKKε and did not promote disease susceptibility. Structure-led mutagenesis identified PexRD2 variants that do not interact with MAPKKKε and fail to support enhanced pathogen growth or perturb MAPKKKε signaling pathways. Our findings provide evidence that P. infestans RXLR effector PexRD2 has evolved to interact with a specific host MAPKKK to perturb plant immunity-related signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart R.F. King
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre,
Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Hazel McLellan
- Division of Plant Sciences, University of Dundee (at
James Hutton Institute), Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, United Kingdom
| | - Petra C. Boevink
- Cell and Molecular Sciences, James Hutton Institute,
Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, United Kingdom
| | - Miles R. Armstrong
- Division of Plant Sciences, University of Dundee (at
James Hutton Institute), Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, United Kingdom
| | - Tatyana Bukharova
- Division of Plant Sciences, University of Dundee (at
James Hutton Institute), Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, United Kingdom
| | - Octavina Sukarta
- Division of Plant Sciences, University of Dundee (at
James Hutton Institute), Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, United Kingdom
| | - Joe Win
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich NR4 7UH, United
Kingdom
| | - Sophien Kamoun
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich NR4 7UH, United
Kingdom
| | - Paul R.J. Birch
- Division of Plant Sciences, University of Dundee (at
James Hutton Institute), Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, United Kingdom
- Cell and Molecular Sciences, James Hutton Institute,
Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, United Kingdom
| | - Mark J. Banfield
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre,
Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
- Address correspondence to
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203
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Martin MD, Ho SY, Wales N, Ristaino JB, Gilbert MTP. Persistence of the Mitochondrial Lineage Responsible for the Irish Potato Famine in Extant New World Phytophthora infestans. Mol Biol Evol 2014; 31:1414-20. [DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msu086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
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204
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Abstract
Fungal and oomycete plant parasites are among the most devastating pathogens of food crops. These microbes secrete effector proteins inside plant cells to manipulate host processes and facilitate colonization. How these effectors reach the host cytoplasm remains an unclear and debated area of plant research. In this article, we examine recent conflicting findings that have generated discussion in the field. We also highlight promising approaches based on studies of both parasite and host during infection. Ultimately, this knowledge may inform future broad spectrum strategies for protecting crops from such pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Petre
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
- INRA, Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes, UMR 1136, Champenoux, France
| | - Sophien Kamoun
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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205
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Dong S, Stam R, Cano LM, Song J, Sklenar J, Yoshida K, Bozkurt TO, Oliva R, Liu Z, Tian M, Win J, Banfield MJ, Jones AME, van der Hoorn RAL, Kamoun S. Effector specialization in a lineage of the Irish potato famine pathogen. Science 2014; 343:552-5. [PMID: 24482481 DOI: 10.1126/science.1246300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Accelerated gene evolution is a hallmark of pathogen adaptation following a host jump. Here, we describe the biochemical basis of adaptation and specialization of a plant pathogen effector after its colonization of a new host. Orthologous protease inhibitor effectors from the Irish potato famine pathogen, Phytophthora infestans, and its sister species, Phytophthora mirabilis, which is responsible for infection of Mirabilis jalapa, are adapted to protease targets unique to their respective host plants. Amino acid polymorphisms in both the inhibitors and their target proteases underpin this biochemical specialization. Our results link effector specialization to diversification and speciation of this plant pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suomeng Dong
- The Sainsbury Laboratory, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
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206
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Shapiro B, Hofreiter M. A paleogenomic perspective on evolution and gene function: new insights from ancient DNA. Science 2014; 343:1236573. [PMID: 24458647 DOI: 10.1126/science.1236573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The publication of partial and complete paleogenomes within the last few years has reinvigorated research in ancient DNA. No longer limited to short fragments of mitochondrial DNA, inference of evolutionary processes through time can now be investigated from genome-wide data sampled as far back as 700,000 years. Tremendous insights have been made, in particular regarding the hominin lineage. With rare exception, however, a paleogenomic perspective has been mired by the quality and quantity of recoverable DNA. Though conceptually simple, extracting ancient DNA remains challenging, and sequencing ancient genomes to high coverage remains prohibitively expensive for most laboratories. Still, with improvements in DNA isolation and declining sequencing costs, the taxonomic and geographic purview of paleogenomics is expanding at a rapid pace. With improved capacity to screen large numbers of samples for those with high proportions of endogenous ancient DNA, paleogenomics is poised to become a key technology to better understand recent evolutionary events.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Shapiro
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
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207
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Abstract
Modern research in ecology draws upon a wide range of different techniques and can offer fresh insights on how to tackle a range of challenges facing the natural world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian T Baldwin
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical EcologyJenaGermany
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208
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Nakano M, Nishihara M, Yoshioka H, Ohnishi K, Hikichi Y, Kiba A. Silencing of DS2 aminoacylase-like genes confirms basal resistance to Phytophthora infestans in Nicotiana benthamiana. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2014; 9:e28004. [PMID: 24514749 PMCID: PMC4091584 DOI: 10.4161/psb.28004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2013] [Revised: 01/26/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Nicotiana benthamiana is a potential host to several plant pathogens, and immature leaves of N. benthamiana are susceptible to Phytophthora infestans. In contrast, mature leaves of N. benthamiana are weakly susceptible and show basal resistance to P. infestans. We screened a gene-silenced mature plant showing high resistance to P. infestans, designated as DS2 (Disease suppression 2). The deduced amino acid sequence of cDNA responsible for DS2 encoded a putative aminoacylase. Growth of P. infestans decreased in DS2 plants. Trypan blue staining revealed inhibited hyphae growth of P. infestans with an increased number of dead cells under the penetration site in DS2 plants. Consistent with growth inhibition of P. infestans, defense responses such as reactive oxygen generation and expression of a salicylic acid-dependent PR-1a increased markedly in DS2 plants compared with that of control plants. DS2 phenotype was compromised in NahG plants, suggesting DS2 phenotype depends on the salicylic acid signaling pathway. Accelerated defense response was observed in DS2 plants elicited by INF1 elicitin as well as by NbMEK2(DD), which is the constitutive active form of NbMEK2, and act as a downstream regulator of INF1 perception. On the other hand, INF1- and NbMEK2(DD)-induced defense responses were prevented by DS2-overexpressing transgenic tobacco. These results suggest that DS2 negatively regulates plant defense responses against P. infestans via NbMEK2 and SA-dependent signaling pathway in N. benthamiana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahito Nakano
- Laboratory of Plant Pathology and Biotechnology; Faculty of Agriculture; Kochi University; Nankoku, Kochi, Japan
| | | | - Hirofumi Yoshioka
- Laboratory of Defense in Plant-Pathogen Interactions; Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences; Nagoya University; Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Kouhei Ohnishi
- Research Institute of Molecular Genetics; Kochi University; Nankoku, Kochi, Japan
| | - Yasufumi Hikichi
- Laboratory of Plant Pathology and Biotechnology; Faculty of Agriculture; Kochi University; Nankoku, Kochi, Japan
| | - Akinori Kiba
- Laboratory of Plant Pathology and Biotechnology; Faculty of Agriculture; Kochi University; Nankoku, Kochi, Japan
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209
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Bertier L, Leus L, D’hondt L, de Cock AWAM, Höfte M. Host adaptation and speciation through hybridization and polyploidy in Phytophthora. PLoS One 2013; 8:e85385. [PMID: 24386473 PMCID: PMC3873470 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
It is becoming increasingly evident that interspecific hybridization is a common event in phytophthora evolution. Yet, the fundamental processes underlying interspecific hybridization and the consequences for its ecological fitness and distribution are not well understood. We studied hybridization events in phytophthora clade 8b. This is a cold-tolerant group of plant pathogenic oomycetes in which six host-specific species have been described that mostly attack winter-grown vegetables. Hybrid characterization was done by sequencing and cloning of two nuclear (ITS and Ypt1) and two mitochondrial loci (Cox1 and Nadh1) combined with DNA content estimation using flow cytometry. Three different mtDNA haplotypes were recovered among the presumed hybrid isolates, dividing the hybrids into three types, with different parental species involved. In the nuclear genes, additivity, i.e. the presence of two alleles coming from different parents, was detected. Hybrid isolates showed large variations in DNA content, which was positively correlated with the additivity in nuclear loci, indicating allopolyploid hybridization followed by a process of diploidization. Moreover, indications of homeologous recombination were found in the hybrids by cloning ITS products. The hybrid isolates have been isolated from a range of hosts that have not been reported previously for clade 8b species, indicating that they have novel pathogenic potential. Next to this, DNA content measurements of the non-hybrid clade 8b species suggest that polyploidy is a common feature of this clade. We hypothesize that interspecific hybridization and polyploidy are two linked phenomena in phytophthora, and that these processes might play an important and ongoing role in the evolution of this genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lien Bertier
- Department of Crop Protection, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Leen Leus
- Plant Sciences Unit, Applied Genetics and Breeding, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Melle, Belgium
| | - Liesbet D’hondt
- Plant Sciences Unit, Applied Genetics and Breeding, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Melle, Belgium
| | | | - Monica Höfte
- Department of Crop Protection, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- * E-mail:
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210
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Seifert KA. Memorials to the Great Famine. IMA Fungus 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03449313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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211
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Pedersen JS, Valen E, Velazquez AMV, Parker BJ, Rasmussen M, Lindgreen S, Lilje B, Tobin DJ, Kelly TK, Vang S, Andersson R, Jones PA, Hoover CA, Tikhonov A, Prokhortchouk E, Rubin EM, Sandelin A, Gilbert MTP, Krogh A, Willerslev E, Orlando L. Genome-wide nucleosome map and cytosine methylation levels of an ancient human genome. Genome Res 2013; 24:454-66. [PMID: 24299735 PMCID: PMC3941110 DOI: 10.1101/gr.163592.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Epigenetic information is available from contemporary organisms, but is difficult to track back in evolutionary time. Here, we show that genome-wide epigenetic information can be gathered directly from next-generation sequence reads of DNA isolated from ancient remains. Using the genome sequence data generated from hair shafts of a 4000-yr-old Paleo-Eskimo belonging to the Saqqaq culture, we generate the first ancient nucleosome map coupled with a genome-wide survey of cytosine methylation levels. The validity of both nucleosome map and methylation levels were confirmed by the recovery of the expected signals at promoter regions, exon/intron boundaries, and CTCF sites. The top-scoring nucleosome calls revealed distinct DNA positioning biases, attesting to nucleotide-level accuracy. The ancient methylation levels exhibited high conservation over time, clustering closely with modern hair tissues. Using ancient methylation information, we estimated the age at death of the Saqqaq individual and illustrate how epigenetic information can be used to infer ancient gene expression. Similar epigenetic signatures were found in other fossil material, such as 110,000- to 130,000-yr-old bones, supporting the contention that ancient epigenomic information can be reconstructed from a deep past. Our findings lay the foundation for extracting epigenomic information from ancient samples, allowing shifts in epialleles to be tracked through evolutionary time, as well as providing an original window into modern epigenomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakob Skou Pedersen
- Department of Molecular Medicine (MOMA), Aarhus University Hospital, Skejby, DK-8200 Aarhus N, Denmark
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212
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Harper KN, Armelagos GJ. Genomics, the origins of agriculture, and our changing microbe-scape: time to revisit some old tales and tell some new ones. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2013; 152 Suppl 57:135-52. [PMID: 24249593 PMCID: PMC7159788 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Though agriculture is often viewed as one of humanity's crowning achievements, skeletal evidence indicates that dependence on domesticated plants and animals was accompanied by an increase in infectious disease. Scientists have proposed that many important infections emerged in the period following the advent of agriculture, as a result of newly dense populations and novel proximity to domestic animals that served as reservoirs for novel pathogens. Here, we review genomic evidence regarding pathogen origins, analyzing these data using the epidemiological transition framework. Genetic information has forced us to reconsider how and when many important pathogens emerged; it appears that a number of infections thought to result from contact with domesticated animals arose much earlier than agriculture was adopted. We also consider the broader effect of agriculture upon the microbiome, exploring potential consequences for human health. We end by discussing the changes in the human microbe-scape we are likely to see in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin N Harper
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032
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213
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Fahlgren N, Bollmann SR, Kasschau KD, Cuperus JT, Press CM, Sullivan CM, Chapman EJ, Hoyer JS, Gilbert KB, Grünwald NJ, Carrington JC. Phytophthora have distinct endogenous small RNA populations that include short interfering and microRNAs. PLoS One 2013; 8:e77181. [PMID: 24204767 PMCID: PMC3804510 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0077181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2013] [Accepted: 09/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In eukaryotes, RNA silencing pathways utilize 20-30-nucleotide small RNAs to regulate gene expression, specify and maintain chromatin structure, and repress viruses and mobile genetic elements. RNA silencing was likely present in the common ancestor of modern eukaryotes, but most research has focused on plant and animal RNA silencing systems. Phytophthora species belong to a phylogenetically distinct group of economically important plant pathogens that cause billions of dollars in yield losses annually as well as ecologically devastating outbreaks. We analyzed the small RNA-generating components of the genomes of P. infestans, P. sojae and P. ramorum using bioinformatics, genetic, phylogenetic and high-throughput sequencing-based methods. Each species produces two distinct populations of small RNAs that are predominantly 21- or 25-nucleotides long. The 25-nucleotide small RNAs were primarily derived from loci encoding transposable elements and we propose that these small RNAs define a pathway of short-interfering RNAs that silence repetitive genetic elements. The 21-nucleotide small RNAs were primarily derived from inverted repeats, including a novel microRNA family that is conserved among the three species, and several gene families, including Crinkler effectors and type III fibronectins. The Phytophthora microRNA is predicted to target a family of amino acid/auxin permeases, and we propose that 21-nucleotide small RNAs function at the post-transcriptional level. The functional significance of microRNA-guided regulation of amino acid/auxin permeases and the association of 21-nucleotide small RNAs with Crinkler effectors remains unclear, but this work provides a framework for testing the role of small RNAs in Phytophthora biology and pathogenesis in future work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah Fahlgren
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Center for Genome Research and Biocomputing, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Stephanie R. Bollmann
- Horticultural Crops Research Laboratory, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Kristin D. Kasschau
- Center for Genome Research and Biocomputing, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Josh T. Cuperus
- Center for Genome Research and Biocomputing, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Caroline M. Press
- Horticultural Crops Research Laboratory, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Christopher M. Sullivan
- Center for Genome Research and Biocomputing, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Elisabeth J. Chapman
- Center for Genome Research and Biocomputing, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
| | - J. Steen Hoyer
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Kerrigan B. Gilbert
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Niklaus J. Grünwald
- Horticultural Crops Research Laboratory, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
- * E-mail: (NJG); (JCC)
| | - James C. Carrington
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Center for Genome Research and Biocomputing, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, United States of America
- * E-mail: (NJG); (JCC)
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214
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Abstract
Diverse and rapidly evolving pathogens cause plant diseases and epidemics that threaten crop yield and food security around the world. Research over the last 25 years has led to an increasingly clear conceptual understanding of the molecular components of the plant immune system. Combined with ever-cheaper DNA-sequencing technology and the rich diversity of germ plasm manipulated for over a century by plant breeders, we now have the means to begin development of durable (long-lasting) disease resistance beyond the limits imposed by conventional breeding and in a manner that will replace costly and unsustainable chemical controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffery L Dangl
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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215
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Flintoft L. Sequencing historical plant pathogens. Nat Rev Genet 2013. [DOI: 10.1038/nrg3546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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216
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Abstract
Large-scale DNA sequencing of samples of foliage collected in the 19th century from plants infected with late blight has shown that the potato famines of the 1840s were triggered by a single clonal lineage of Phytophthora infestans, called HERB-1, which persisted for at least 50 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul RJ Birch
- Paul RJ Birch is at the Division of Plant Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom and the James Hutton Institute, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - David EL Cooke
- David EL Cooke is at the James Hutton Institute, Dundee, United Kingdom
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217
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