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A Critical Evaluation of Behavioral Rodent Models of Motor Impairment Used for Screening of Antiparkinsonian Activity: The Case of Adenosine A2A Receptor Antagonists. Neurotox Res 2013; 25:392-401. [DOI: 10.1007/s12640-013-9446-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2013] [Revised: 10/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/25/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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252
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Modeling fall propensity in Parkinson's disease: deficits in the attentional control of complex movements in rats with cortical-cholinergic and striatal-dopaminergic deafferentation. J Neurosci 2013; 33:16522-39. [PMID: 24133257 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2545-13.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive symptoms, complex movement deficits, and increased propensity for falls are interrelated and levodopa-unresponsive symptoms in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). We developed a test system for the assessment of fall propensity in rats and tested the hypothesis that interactions between loss of cortical cholinergic and striatal dopaminergic afferents increase fall propensity. Rats were trained to traverse stationary and rotating rods, placed horizontally or at inclines, and while exposed to distractors. Rats also performed an operant Sustained Attention Task (SAT). Partial cortical cholinergic and/or caudate dopaminergic deafferentation were produced by bilateral infusions of 192 IgG-saporin (SAP) into the basal forebrain and/or 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the caudate nucleus, respectively, modeling the lesions seen in early PD. Rats with dual cholinergic-dopaminergic lesions (DL) fell more frequently than SAP or 6-OHDA rats. Falls in DL rats were associated with incomplete rebalancing after slips and low traversal speed. Ladder rung walking and pasta handling performance did not indicate sensorimotor deficits. SAT performance was impaired in DL and SAP rats; however, SAT performance and falls were correlated only in DL rats. Furthermore, in DL rats, but not in rats with only dopaminergic lesions, the placement and size of dopaminergic lesion correlated significantly with fall rates. The results support the hypothesis that after dual cholinergic-dopaminergic lesions, attentional resources can no longer be recruited to compensate for diminished striatal control of complex movement, thereby "unmasking" impaired striatal control of complex movements and yielding falls.
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253
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Simola N, Morelli M, Frazzitta G, Frau L. Role of movement in long-term basal ganglia changes: implications for abnormal motor responses. Front Comput Neurosci 2013; 7:142. [PMID: 24167489 PMCID: PMC3805948 DOI: 10.3389/fncom.2013.00142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 09/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs) and dyskinesias elicited by drugs that stimulate dopamine receptors in the basal ganglia are a major issue in the management of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Preclinical studies in dopamine-denervated animals have contributed to the modeling of these abnormal movements, but the precise neurochemical and functional mechanisms underlying these untoward effects are still elusive. It has recently been suggested that the performance of movement may itself promote the later emergence of drug-induced motor complications, by favoring the generation of aberrant motor memories in the dopamine-denervated basal ganglia. Our recent results from hemiparkinsonian rats subjected to the priming model of dopaminergic stimulation are in agreement with this. These results demonstrate that early performance of movement is crucial for the manifestation of sensitized rotational behavior, indicative of an abnormal motor response, and neurochemical modifications in selected striatal neurons following a dopaminergic challenge. Building on this evidence, this paper discusses the possible role of movement performance in drug-induced motor complications, with a look at the implications for PD management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Simola
- 1Section of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari Cagliari, Italy
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254
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Performance of movement in hemiparkinsonian rats influences the modifications induced by dopamine agonists in striatal efferent dynorphinergic neurons. Exp Neurol 2013; 247:663-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2013.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2012] [Revised: 02/20/2013] [Accepted: 03/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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255
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Cathepsin X promotes 6-hydroxydopamine-induced apoptosis of PC12 and SH-SY5Y cells. Neuropharmacology 2013; 82:121-31. [PMID: 23958447 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Revised: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The cysteine carboxypeptidase cathepsin X is an important player in degenerative processes under normal ageing and pathological conditions. In the present study, we investigated the potential role of cathepsin X in 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced toxicity in the pheochromocytoma cell line PC12 and neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. Cells exposed to 6-OHDA demonstrated alterations in the protein level of cathepsin X and activity of cathepsin X. Downregulation of cathepsin X expression by siRNA attenuated the neuronal death caused by 6-OHDA. Treatment with specific cathepsin X inhibitor AMS36 protected cells against 6-OHDA mediated cytotoxicity, resulting in reduced cell death and apoptosis. Furthermore, AMS36 reversed 6-OHDA-induced loss of tyrosine hydroxylase and attenuated 6-OHDA-induced activation of caspase-3, triggering apoptosis, intracellular generation of reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial dysfunction, including the release of cytochrome c and an imbalanced Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. Moreover, AMS36 interfered with NF-κB activation by blocking degradation of IκBα, preventing NF-κB translocation to the nucleus. Our data provide the first evidence that inhibition of cathepsin X protects both, PC12 and SH-SY5Y cells against 6-OHDA toxicity and indicate that cathepsin X may be responsible for dopamine neuron death, involved in the pathogenic cascade event for the neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease.
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256
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Zuo L, Motherwell MS. The impact of reactive oxygen species and genetic mitochondrial mutations in Parkinson's disease. Gene 2013; 532:18-23. [PMID: 23954870 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2013.07.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2013] [Accepted: 07/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The exact pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) is still unknown and proper mechanisms that correspond to the disease remain unidentified. It is understood that PD is age-related; as age increases, the chance of onset responds accordingly. Although there are no current means of curing PD, the understanding of reactive oxygen species (ROS) provides significant insight to possible treatments. Complex I deficiencies of the respiratory chain account for the majority of unfavorable neural apoptosis generation in PD. Dopaminergic neurons are severely damaged as a result of the deficiency. Symptoms such as inhibited cognitive ability and loss of smooth motor function are the results of such impairment. The genetic mutations of Parkinson's related proteins such as PINK1 and LRRK2 contribute to mitochondrial dysfunction which precedes ROS formation. Various pathways are inhibited by these mutations, and inevitably causing neural cell damage. Antioxidants are known to negate the damaging effects of free radical overexpression. This paper expands on the specific impact of mitochondrial genetic change and production of free radicals as well as its correlation to the neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zuo
- Molecular Physiology and Biophysics Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Oakland University, Rochester, MI 48309, USA; Radiologic Sciences and Respiratory Therapy Division, School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Biophysics Graduate Program, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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257
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Phosphodiesterases: Regulators of cyclic nucleotide signals and novel molecular target for movement disorders. Eur J Pharmacol 2013; 714:486-97. [PMID: 23850946 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2012] [Revised: 06/16/2013] [Accepted: 06/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Movement disorders rank among the most common neurological disorders. During the last two decades substantial progress has been made in understanding of the pathological basis of these disorders. Although, several mechanisms have been proposed, downregulation of cyclic nucleotide mediated signaling cascade has consistently been shown to contribute to the striatal dysfunctioning as seen in movement disorders. Thus, counteracting dysregulated cyclic nucleotide signaling has been considered to be beneficial in movement disorders. Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) are the enzymes responsible for the breakdown of cyclic nucleotides and upregulation in PDE activity has been reported in various movement disorders. Thus, PDE inhibition is considered to be a novel strategy to restore cerebral cyclic nucleotide levels and their downstream signalling cascade. Indeed, various PDE inhibitors have been tested pre-clinically and were reported to be neuroprotective in various neurodegenerative disorders associated with movement disabilities. In this review, we have discussed a putative role of PDE inhibitors in movement disorders and associated abnormalities.
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258
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Del-Bel E, Padovan-Neto FE, Szawka RE, da-Silva CA, Raisman-Vozari R, Anselmo-Franci J, Romano-Dutra AC, Guimaraes FS. Counteraction by nitric oxide synthase inhibitor of neurochemical alterations of dopaminergic system in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats under L-DOPA treatment. Neurotox Res 2013; 25:33-44. [PMID: 23807548 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-013-9406-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Revised: 06/12/2013] [Accepted: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide synthase inhibitors reduce L-3, (Del-Bel et al., Cell Mol Neurobiol 25(2):371-392, 2005) 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA)-induced abnormal motor effects subsequent to depletion of dopaminergic neurons in rodents and non-human primates. The present study used quantitative high-performance liquid chromatography to analyze, for the first time, dopamine metabolism in striatum of rats in order to elucidate the mechanism of action of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitors. Adult male Wistar rats received unilateral microinjection of saline (sham) or 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA-lesioned) in the medial forebrain bundle. Past 3 weeks, rats were treated during 21 days with L-DOPA/benserazide (30 mg/kg/7.5 mg/kg, respectively, daily). On the 22nd day rats received an intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of either vehicle or 7-nitroindazole, a preferential neuronal nitric oxide synthase inhibitor before L-DOPA. Abnormal involuntary movements and rotarod test were assessed as behavioral correlate of motor responses. Lesion intensity was evaluated through tyrosine hydroxylase immunohystochemical reaction. Dopamine, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), and an extent of dopamine striatal tissue levels/dopamine metabolism were measured in the striatum. Lesion with 6-OHDA decreased dopamine, DOPAC, and DOPAC/dopamine ratio in the lesioned striatum. L-DOPA treatment induced abnormal involuntary movements and increased DOPAC/dopamine ratio (nearly five times) in the lesioned striatum. L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia was mitigated by 7-nitroindazole, which also decreased dopamine turnover, dopamine and DOPAC levels. Our results revealed an almost two times increase in dopamine content in the non-lesioned striatum of 6-OHDA-lesioned rats. Reduction of striatal DOPAC/dopamine ratio in dyskinetic rats may suggest an increase in the dopamine availability. Our data confirm contribution of nitrergic transmission in the pathogenesis of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia with potential utilization of nitric oxide synthase inhibitors for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine Del-Bel
- Department of Morphology, Physiology and Pathology, School of Odontology, University of São Paulo, Campus Ribeirão Preto, Av. Café S/N, Ribeirão Preto, SP, 14040-904, Brazil,
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259
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Antioxidant effect of Spirulina (Arthrospira) maxima in a neurotoxic model caused by 6-OHDA in the rat striatum. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2013; 120:1179-89. [PMID: 23430275 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-013-0976-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
There is evidence to support that an impaired energy metabolism and the excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) contribute to brain injury in neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease (PD), whereas diets enriched in foods with an antioxidant action may modulate its progression. Several studies have proved that the antioxidant components produced by Spirulina, a microscopic blue-green alga, might prevent cell death by decreasing free radicals, inhibiting lipoperoxidation and upregulating the antioxidant enzyme systems. In our study, we investigated the protective effect of the Spirulina maxima (S. maxima) against the 6-OHDA-caused toxicity in the rat striatum. The S. maxima (700 mg/kg/day, vo) was administered for 40 days before and 20 days after a single injection of 6-OHDA (16 μg/2 μL) into the dorsal striatum. At 20-day postsurgery, the brain was removed and the striatum was obtained to evaluate the indicators of toxicity, such as nitric oxide levels, ROS formation, lipoperoxidation, and mitochondrial activity. These variables were found significantly stimulated in 6-OHDA-treated rats and were accompanied by declines in dopamine levels and motor activity. In contrast, the animals that received the chronic treatment with S. maxima had a restored locomotor activity, which is associated with the decreased levels of nitric oxide, ROS, and lipoperoxidation in the striatum, although mitochondrial functions and dopamine levels remained preserved. These findings suggest that supplementation with antioxidant phytochemicals (such as contained in S. maxima) represents an effective neuroprotective strategy against 6-OHDA-caused neurotoxicity vía free radical production to preserve striatal dopaminergic neurotransmission in vivo.
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260
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The dopaminergic stabilizer pridopidine decreases expression of l-DOPA-induced locomotor sensitisation in the rat unilateral 6-OHDA model. Eur J Pharmacol 2013; 698:278-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2012.10.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2012] [Revised: 10/17/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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261
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Gong L, Zhang QL, Zhang N, Hua WY, Huang YX, Di PW, Huang T, Xu XS, Liu CF, Hu LF, Luo WF. Neuroprotection by urate on 6-OHDA-lesioned rat model of Parkinson's disease: linking to Akt/GSK3β signaling pathway. J Neurochem 2012; 123:876-85. [PMID: 23094836 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2012] [Revised: 09/12/2012] [Accepted: 09/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Li Gong
- Department of Neurology; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University; Suzhou China
- Institute of Neuroscience; Soochow University; Suzhou China
| | - Qi-Lin Zhang
- Department of Neurology; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University; Suzhou China
| | - Ning Zhang
- Department of Neurology; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University; Suzhou China
- Institute of Neuroscience; Soochow University; Suzhou China
| | - Wen-Yan Hua
- Department of Pharmacy; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University; Suzhou China
| | - Yi-Xian Huang
- Department of Neurology; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University; Suzhou China
| | - Ping-Wei Di
- Department of Neurology; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University; Suzhou China
| | - Tingting Huang
- Department of Neurology; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University; Suzhou China
| | - Xing-Shun Xu
- Department of Neurology; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University; Suzhou China
- Institute of Neuroscience; Soochow University; Suzhou China
| | - Chun-Feng Liu
- Department of Neurology; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University; Suzhou China
- Institute of Neuroscience; Soochow University; Suzhou China
| | - Li-Fang Hu
- Department of Neurology; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University; Suzhou China
- Institute of Neuroscience; Soochow University; Suzhou China
| | - Wei-Feng Luo
- Department of Neurology; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University; Suzhou China
- Institute of Neuroscience; Soochow University; Suzhou China
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262
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Short- and long-term unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions in rats show different changes in characteristics of spontaneous firing of substantia nigra pars reticulata neurons. Exp Brain Res 2012; 224:15-24. [PMID: 23283416 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-012-3285-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Accepted: 09/20/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesion of the medial forebrain bundle induces hemiparkinsonism in rats and is a well established animal model of Parkinson's disease. In this study, we assessed the spontaneous activity of substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) neurons in unilateral 6-OHDA- or sham-treated rats. Extracellular single cell recordings revealed a bilaterally decreased firing rate in short-term 6-OHDA-lesioned rats (8-10 weeks post lesion) while no rate differences were evident in long-term lesioned animals (5-8 months post lesion) in vivo under chloral hydrate anaesthesia. However, firing pattern of the SNr neurons (indicated by interspike interval (ISI) histogram parameters: coefficient of variation, skewness and kurtosis) was significantly altered only after long-term lesion: 53.8 % of the recorded cells in the ipsilateral 6-OHDA-lesioned SNr fired in a bursting pattern (compared to 5.9-16.7 % in contralateral SNr or sham controls). Additionally, behavioural effects of the lesion were assessed 4 weeks post lesion by the forelimb adjusting stepping test. A decreased number of adjusting steps with the contralateral forepaw, as well as an increased performance with the ipsilateral paw was found for the 6-OHDA-lesioned rats as compared to sham controls. Furthermore, stepping values were negatively correlated with the ISI parameters after long-term lesion, while there were no correlations with the short-term groups. Firing rate was not correlated regardless of the time frame. In conclusion, long-term changes in firing pattern may represent a neuronal correlate of the 6-OHDA-induced hemiparkinsonism and may be useful for the interpretation of 6-OHDA-induced motor deficits and compensatory mechanisms as well.
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263
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Singh AK, Tiwari MN, Prakash O, Singh MP. A current review of cypermethrin-induced neurotoxicity and nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Curr Neuropharmacol 2012; 10:64-71. [PMID: 22942879 PMCID: PMC3286848 DOI: 10.2174/157015912799362779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2011] [Revised: 07/29/2011] [Accepted: 08/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cypermethrin, a class II pyrethroid pesticide, is used to control insects in the household and agricultural fields. Despite beneficial roles, its uncontrolled and repetitive applications lead to unintended effects in non-target organisms. Cypermethrin crosses the blood-brain barrier and induces neurotoxicity and motor deficits. Cypermethrin prolongs the opening of sodium channel, a major site of its action, leading to hyper-excitation of the central nervous system. In addition to sodium channel, cypermethrin modulates chloride, voltage-gated calcium and potassium channels, alters the activity of glutamate and acetylcholine receptors and adenosine triphosphatases and induces DNA damage and oxidative stress in the neuronal cells. Cypermethrin also modulates the level of neurotransmitters, including gamma-aminobutyric acid and dopamine. It is one of the most commonly used pesticides in neurotoxicology research not only because of its variable responses depending upon the doses, time and routes of exposure and strain, age, gender and species of animals used across multiple studies but also owing to its ability to induce the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration. This article describes the effect of acute, chronic, developmental and adulthood exposures to cypermethrin in experimental animals. The article sheds light on cypermethrin-induced changes in the central nervous system, including its contribution in the onset of specific features, which are associated with the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Resemblances and dissimilarities of cypermethrin-induced nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration with sporadic and chemicals-induced disease models along with its advantages and pitfalls are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anand Kumar Singh
- Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research), M. G. Marg, Post Box - 80, Lucknow - 226 001, India Varanasi - 221 005, India
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264
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Tobón-Velasco JC, Vázquez-Victorio G, Macías-Silva M, Cuevas E, Ali SF, Maldonado PD, González-Trujano ME, Cuadrado A, Pedraza-Chaverrí J, Santamaría A. RETRACTED: S-allyl cysteine protects against 6-hydroxydopamine-induced neurotoxicity in the rat striatum: involvement of Nrf2 transcription factor activation and modulation of signaling kinase cascades. Free Radic Biol Med 2012; 53:1024-40. [PMID: 22781654 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2012.06.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2012] [Revised: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 06/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Pharmacological activation at the basal ganglia of the transcription factor Nrf2, guardian of redox homeostasis, holds a strong promise for the slow progression of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, a potent Nrf2 activator in the brain still must be found. In this study, we have investigated the potential use of the antioxidant compound S-allyl cysteine (SAC) in the activation of Nrf2 in 6-hydoxydopamine (6-OHDA)-intoxicated rats. In the rat striatum, SAC by itself promoted the Nrf2 dissociation of Keap-1, its nuclear translocation, the subsequent association with small MafK protein, and further binding of the Nrf2/MafK complex to ARE sequence, as well as the up-regulation of Nrf2-dependent genes encoding the antioxidant enzymes HO-1, NQO-1, GR, and SOD-1. In vivo and in vitro experiments to identify signaling pathways activated by SAC pointed to Akt as the most likely kinase participating in Nrf2 activation by SAC. In PC12 cells, SAC stimulated the activation of Akt and ERK1/2 and inhibited JNK1/2/3 activation. In the rat striatum, the SAC-induced activation of Nrf2 is likely to contribute to inhibit the toxic effects of 6-OHDA evidenced by phase 2 antioxidant enzymes up-regulation, glutathione recovery, and attenuation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), and lipid peroxides formation. These early protective effects correlated with the long-term preservation of the cellular redox status, the striatal dopamine (DA) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) levels, and the improvement of motor skills. Therefore, this study indicates that, in addition to direct scavenging actions, the activation of Nrf2 by SAC might confer neuroprotective responses through the modulation of kinase signaling pathways in rodent models of PD, and suggests that this antioxidant molecule may have a therapeutic value in this human pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio César Tobón-Velasco
- Laboratorio de Aminoácidos Excitadores, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía - S.S.A., México City, Mexico
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265
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Alteration in the progression of dopamine neuron degeneration: May caffeine offer new perspective? Exp Neurol 2012; 237:218-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Revised: 05/22/2012] [Accepted: 05/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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266
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Pienaar IS, Lu B, Schallert T. Closing the gap between clinic and cage: sensori-motor and cognitive behavioural testing regimens in neurotoxin-induced animal models of Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012; 36:2305-24. [PMID: 22910679 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Revised: 06/28/2012] [Accepted: 07/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Animal models that make use of chemical toxins to adversely affect the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway of rodents and primates have contributed significantly towards the development of symptomatic therapies for Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. Although their use in developing neuro-therapeutic and -regenerative compounds remains to be ascertained, toxin-based mammalian and a range of non-mammalian models of PD are important tools in the identification and validation of candidate biomarkers for earlier diagnosis, as well as in the development of novel treatments that are currently working their way into the clinic. Toxin models of PD have and continue to be important models to use for understanding the consequences of nigrostriatal dopamine cell loss. Functional assessment of these models is also a critical component for eventual translational success. Sensitive behavioural testing regimens for assessing the extent of dysfunction exhibited in the toxin models, the degree of protection or improvement afforded by potential treatment modalities, and the correlation of these findings with what is observed clinically in PD patients, ultimately determines whether a potential treatment moves to clinical trials. Here, we review existing published work that describes the use of such behavioural outcome measures associated with toxin models of parkinsonism. In particular, we focus on tests assessing sensorimotor and cognitive function, both of which are significantly and progressively impaired in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilse S Pienaar
- Institute for Ageing and Health, Department of Neurology, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, United Kingdom.
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267
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Iglesias-González J, Sánchez-Iglesias S, Méndez-Álvarez E, Rose S, Hikima A, Jenner P, Soto-Otero R. Differential toxicity of 6-hydroxydopamine in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells and rat brain mitochondria: protective role of catalase and superoxide dismutase. Neurochem Res 2012; 37:2150-60. [PMID: 22821477 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-012-0838-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2012] [Revised: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are two pathophysiological factors often associated with the neurodegenerative process involved in Parkinson's disease (PD). Although, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) is able to cause dopaminergic neurodegeneration in experimental models of PD by an oxidative stress-mediated process, the underlying molecular mechanism remains unclear. It has been established that some antioxidant enzymes such as catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) are often altered in PD, which suggests a potential role of these enzymes in the onset and/or development of this multifactorial syndrome. In this study we have used high-resolution respirometry to evaluate the effect of 6-OHDA on mitochondrial respiration of isolated rat brain mitochondria and the lactate dehydrogenase cytotoxicity assay to assess the percentage of cell death induced by 6-OHDA in human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. Our results show that 6-OHDA affects mitochondrial respiration by causing a reduction in both respiratory control ratio (IC(50) = 200 ± 15 nM) and state 3 respiration (IC(50) = 192 ± 17 nM), with no significant effects on state 4(o). An inhibition in the activity of both complex I and V was also observed. 6-OHDA also caused cellular death in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells (IC(50) = 100 ± 9 μM). Both SOD and CAT have been shown to protect against the toxic effects caused by 6-OHDA on mitochondrial respiration. However, whereas SOD protects against 6-OHDA-induced cellular death, CAT enhances its cytotoxicity. The here reported data suggest that both superoxide anion and hydroperoxyl radical could account for 6-OHDA toxicity. Furthermore, factors reducing the rate of 6-OHDA autoxidation to its p-quinone appear to enhance its cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Iglesias-González
- Group of Neurochemistry for Parkinson's Disease, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco 1, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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268
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Kemeny S, Dery D, Loboda Y, Rovner M, Lev T, Zuri D, Finberg JPM, Larisch S. Parkin promotes degradation of the mitochondrial pro-apoptotic ARTS protein. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38837. [PMID: 22792159 PMCID: PMC3392246 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2011] [Accepted: 05/11/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is associated with excessive cell death causing selective loss of dopaminergic neurons. Dysfunction of the Ubiquitin Proteasome System (UPS) is associated with the pathophysiology of PD. Mutations in Parkin which impair its E3-ligase activity play a major role in the pathogenesis of inherited PD. ARTS (Sept4_i2) is a mitochondrial protein, which initiates caspase activation upstream of cytochrome c release in the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Here we show that Parkin serves as an E3-ubiquitin ligase to restrict the levels of ARTS through UPS-mediated degradation. Though Parkin binds equally to ARTS and Sept4_i1 (H5/PNUTL2), the non-apoptotic splice variant of Sept4, Parkin ubiquitinates and degrades only ARTS. Thus, the effect of Parkin on ARTS is specific and probably related to its pro-apoptotic function. High levels of ARTS are sufficient to promote apoptosis in cultured neuronal cells, and rat brains treated with 6-OHDA reveal high levels of ARTS. However, over-expression of Parkin can protect cells from ARTS-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, Parkin loss-of-function experiments reveal that reduction of Parkin causes increased levels of ARTS and apoptosis. We propose that in brain cells in which the E3-ligase activity of Parkin is compromised, ARTS levels increase and facilitate apoptosis. Thus, ARTS is a novel substrate of Parkin. These observations link Parkin directly to a pro-apoptotic protein and reveal a novel connection between Parkin, apoptosis, and PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stav Kemeny
- Cell Death Research Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, The Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Bat-Galim, Haifa, Israel
| | - Dikla Dery
- Cell Death Research Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel
| | - Yelena Loboda
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, The Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Bat-Galim, Haifa, Israel
| | - Marshall Rovner
- Cell Death Research Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel
| | - Tali Lev
- Cell Death Research Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel
| | - Dotan Zuri
- Cell Death Research Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel
| | - John P. M. Finberg
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, The Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Bat-Galim, Haifa, Israel
| | - Sarit Larisch
- Cell Death Research Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel
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269
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Döbrössy MD, Braun F, Klein S, Garcia J, Langen KJ, Weber WA, Nikkhah G, Meyer PT. [18F]desmethoxyfallypride as a novel PET radiotracer for quantitative in vivo dopamine D2/D3 receptor imaging in rat models of neurodegenerative diseases. Nucl Med Biol 2012; 39:1077-80. [PMID: 22591915 DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2012.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Accepted: 04/11/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION [(18)F]desmethoxyfallypride ([(18)F]DMFP) is a promising tracer for longitudinal assessment of striatal dopamine D2/D3-receptor (D2R) availability by positron emission tomography (PET) in small animal models. We explored the feasibility of [(18)F]DMFP-PET to image D2R availability in rat models of Huntington's (HD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). METHODS Animals received either unilateral intrastriatal quinolinic acid lesions or medial forebrain bundle injections of 6-OHDA to produce the loss of striatal projection neurones or deplete the striatal dopamine, corresponding to established animal models for HD and PD, respectively. Three weeks after lesioning, PET scans were acquired on a microPET Focus 120 system following the tail vein injection of [(18)F]DMFP. RESULTS [(18)F]DMFP-PET clearly visualized lesion induced decreases and increases of D2R availability. In vivo estimates of D2R binding and changes thereof gained by pharmacokinetic analyses correlated significantly with D2R density and its change provided by in vitro [(3)H]raclopride-autoradiography. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, [(18)F]DMFP-PET is a suitable method for in vivo D2R-assessment in preclinical research, e.g for monitoring cell-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Máté D Döbrössy
- Stereotactic Neurosurgery, Department of General Neurosurgery, University Freiburg Medical Center, Breisacher Str 64, 79106, Freiburg, Germany.
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270
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Soto-Otero R, Méndez-Álvarez E, Sánchez-Iglesias S, Labandeira-García JL, Rodríguez-Pallares J, Zubkov FI, Zaytsev VP, Voskressensky LG, Varlamov AV, de Candia M, Fiorella F, Altomare C. 2-Benzazepine Nitrones Protect Dopaminergic Neurons against 6-Hydroxydopamine-Induced Oxidative Toxicity. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2012; 345:598-609. [DOI: 10.1002/ardp.201200007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2012] [Revised: 03/08/2012] [Accepted: 03/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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271
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Takuma K, Tanaka T, Takahashi T, Hiramatsu N, Ota Y, Ago Y, Matsuda T. Neuronal nitric oxide synthase inhibition attenuates the development of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in hemi-Parkinsonian rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2012; 683:166-73. [PMID: 22449381 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2012.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2011] [Revised: 02/28/2012] [Accepted: 03/04/2012] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Long-term treatment with the dopamine precursor levodopa (l-DOPA) frequently induces dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease patients, which is a major complication of this therapy. Previous studies using animal models show that repeated administration of l-DOPA results in alterations of some signaling molecules, including ΔFosB, phospho-DARPP32 and phosoho-GluA1 (also referred to as GluR1 or GluR-A) AMPA receptor subunits. Moreover, an in vivo microdialysis study showed that l-DOPA increases nitric oxide (NO) production in the striatum. However, it is not known whether NO is involved in the development of dyskinesia. The present study examined the effects of NOS inhibitors on the development of l-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in the rats. Dyskinesia symptoms were triggered by daily administration of l-DOPA for 3-4weeks in unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesioned rats. Repeated treatments, 30min prior l-DOPA administration, of the nonselective NOS inhibitor, N(G)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester, and the nNOS inhibitor 7-nitroindazole, but not the inducible NOS inhibitor aminoguanidine, attenuated the development of l-DOPA-induced dyskinesia. In agreement with the behavioral analysis, 7-nitroindazole reduced the l-DOPA-induced increases in ΔFosB, phospho-DARPP32 and phospho-GluA1 AMPA receptor subunit levels in the striatum of 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats. Furthermore, aminoguanidine did not affect ΔFosB or phospho-GluA1 AMPA receptor subunit levels. These findings suggest that nNOS-derived NO is involved in the development of l-DOPA-induced dyskinesia through a post-synaptic mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro Takuma
- Laboratory of Medicinal Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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272
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Zhang H, Mak S, Cui W, Li W, Han R, Hu S, Ye M, Pi R, Han Y. Tacrine(2)–ferulic acid, a novel multifunctional dimer, attenuates 6-hydroxydopamine-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells by activating Akt pathway. Neurochem Int 2011; 59:981-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2011.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2011] [Revised: 08/20/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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273
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El Ayadi A, Zigmond MJ. Low concentrations of methamphetamine can protect dopaminergic cells against a larger oxidative stress injury: mechanistic study. PLoS One 2011; 6:e24722. [PMID: 22022363 PMCID: PMC3192034 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2010] [Accepted: 08/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mild stress can protect against a larger insult, a phenomenon termed preconditioning or tolerance. To determine if a low intensity stressor could also protect cells against intense oxidative stress in a model of dopamine deficiency associated with Parkinson disease, we used methamphetamine to provide a mild, preconditioning stress, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) as a source of potentially toxic oxidative stress, and MN9D cells as a model of dopamine neurons. We observed that prior exposure to subtoxic concentrations of methamphetamine protected these cells against 6-OHDA toxicity, whereas higher concentrations of methamphetamine exacerbated it. The protection by methamphetamine was accompanied by decreased uptake of both [(3)H] dopamine and 6-OHDA into the cells, which may have accounted for some of the apparent protection. However, a number of other effects of methamphetamine exposure suggest that the drug also affected basic cellular survival mechanisms. First, although methamphetamine preconditioning decreased basal pERK1/2 and pAkt levels, it enhanced the 6-OHDA-induced increase in these phosphokinases. Second, the apparent increase in pERK1/2 activity was accompanied by increased pMEK1/2 levels and decreased activity of protein phosphatase 2. Third, methamphetamine upregulated the pro-survival protein Bcl-2. Our results suggest that exposure to low concentrations of methamphetamine cause a number of changes in dopamine cells, some of which result in a decrease in their vulnerability to subsequent oxidative stress. These observations may provide insights into the development of new therapies for prevention or treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amina El Ayadi
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Michael J. Zigmond
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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274
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Soriano-Ursúa MA, Ocampo-López JO, Ocampo-Mendoza K, Trujillo-Ferrara JG, Correa-Basurto J. Theoretical study of 3-D molecular similarity and ligand binding modes of orthologous human and rat D2 dopamine receptors. Comput Biol Med 2011; 41:537-45. [PMID: 21621758 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2011.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2010] [Revised: 04/27/2011] [Accepted: 04/29/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The D(2) dopamine receptor (D(2)DR) is an important target for the treatment of some central nervous system disorders, such as Parkinson disease, schizophrenia and drug-dependence. In this work, we built 3-D models of the long form of human and rat D(2)DRs by considering data from the crystallized D3 dopamine receptor, β2 adrenoceptor and A2a adenosine receptor as templates. Then, docking was performed with ligand and protein residue flexibility. These results were used to analyze ligand recognition and estimate binding affinity. Our results show that the predicted ligand affinity correlates with experimental data, and binding modes are very similar between the D(2)DRs of these two species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin A Soriano-Ursúa
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, 11340 México, Mexico
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275
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Petzinger GM, Fisher BE, Akopian G, Holschneider DP, Wood R, Walsh JP, Lund B, Meshul C, Vuckovic M, Jakowec MW. The role of exercise in facilitating basal ganglia function in Parkinson's disease. Neurodegener Dis Manag 2011; 1:157-170. [PMID: 23805167 PMCID: PMC3691073 DOI: 10.2217/nmt.11.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological and clinical studies have suggested that exercise is beneficial for patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). Through research in normal (noninjured) animals, neuroscientists have begun to understand the mechanisms in the brain by which behavioral training and exercise facilitates improvement in motor behavior through modulation of neuronal function and structure, called experience-dependent neuroplasticity. Recent studies are beginning to reveal molecules and downstream signaling pathways that are regulated during exercise and motor learning in animal models of PD and that are important in driving protective and/or adaptive changes in neuronal connections of the basal ganglia and related circuitry. These molecules include the neurotransmitters dopamine and glutamate (and their respective receptors) as well as neurotrophic factors (brain-derived neurotrophic factor). In parallel, human exercise studies have been important in revealing 'proof of concept' including examining the types and parameters of exercise that are important for behavioral/functional improvements and brain changes; the feasibility of incorporating and maintaining an exercise program in individuals with motor disability; and, importantly, the translation and investigation of exercise effects observed in animal studies to exercise effects on brain and behavior in individuals with PD. In this article we highlight findings from both animal and human exercise studies that provide insight into brain changes of the basal ganglia and its related circuitry and that support potentially key parameters of exercise that may lead to long-term benefit and disease modification in PD. In addition, we discuss the current and future impact on patient care and point out gaps in our knowledge where continuing research is needed. Elucidation of exercise parameters important in driving neuroplasticity, as well as the accompanying mechanisms that underlie experience-dependent neuroplasticity may also provide insights towards new therapeutic targets, including neurorestorative and/or neuroprotective agents, for individuals with PD and related neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giselle M Petzinger
- The George & MaryLou Boone Center for Parkinson’s Disease Research, Department of Neurology, MCA-241, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Division of Biokinesiology & Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Beth E Fisher
- Division of Biokinesiology & Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Garnik Akopian
- Andrus Gerontology Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - Ruth Wood
- Department of Cell & Neurobiology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - John P Walsh
- Andrus Gerontology Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Brett Lund
- The George & MaryLou Boone Center for Parkinson’s Disease Research, Department of Neurology, MCA-241, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Charles Meshul
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University/ VA Medical Center, Portland, Oregon, CA, USA
| | - Marta Vuckovic
- The George & MaryLou Boone Center for Parkinson’s Disease Research, Department of Neurology, MCA-241, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Michael W Jakowec
- The George & MaryLou Boone Center for Parkinson’s Disease Research, Department of Neurology, MCA-241, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Division of Biokinesiology & Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Cell & Neurobiology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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276
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Prieto GA, Perez-Burgos A, Palomero-Rivero M, Galarraga E, Drucker-Colin R, Bargas J. Upregulation of D2-class signaling in dopamine-denervated striatum is in part mediated by D3 receptors acting on Ca V 2.1 channels via PIP2 depletion. J Neurophysiol 2011; 105:2260-74. [PMID: 21389298 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00516.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra compacta followed by striatal dopamine depletion is a hallmark of Parkinson's disease. After dopamine depletion, dopaminergic D(2) receptor (D(2)R)-class supersensitivity develops in striatal neurons. The supersensitivity results in an enhanced modulation of Ca(2+) currents by D(2)R-class receptors. However, the relative contribution of D(2)R, D(3)R, and D(4)R types to the supersensitivity, as well as the mechanisms involved, have not been elucidated. In this study, whole cell voltage-clamp recordings were performed to study Ca(2+) current modulation in acutely dissociated striatal neurons obtained from rodents with unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions in the substantia nigra compacta. Selective antagonists for D(2)R, D(3)R, and D(4)R types were used to identify whether the modulation by one of these receptors experiences a selective change after dopaminergic denervation. It was found that D(3)R-mediated modulation was particularly enhanced. Increased modulation targeted Ca(V)2.1 (P/Q) Ca(2+) channels via the depletion of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, an intracellular signaling cascade hard to detect in control neurons and hypothesized as being amplified by dopamine depletion. An imbalance in the striatal expression of D(3)R and its splice variant, D(3)nf, accompanied enhanced D(3)R activity. Because Ca(V)2.1 Ca(2+) channels mediate synaptic GABA release from the terminals of striatal neurons, reinforcement of their inhibition by D(3)R may explain in part the profound decrease in synaptic strength in the connections among striatal projection neurons observed in the dopamine-depleted striatum.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Aleph Prieto
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular-Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
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277
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Lithium fails to protect dopaminergic neurons in the 6-OHDA model of Parkinson's disease. Neurochem Res 2011; 36:367-74. [PMID: 21203835 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-010-0368-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Lithium has been used for the treatment of bipolar mood disorder and is shown to have neuroprotective properties. Since lithium inhibits the activity of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) which is implicated in various human diseases, particularly neurodegenerative diseases, the therapeutic potential of lithium receives great attention. Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, characterized by the pathological loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Intranigral injection of the catecholaminergic neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) causes selective and progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in SNpc, and is a commonly used animal model of PD. The current study was designated to determine whether lithium is effective in alleviating 6-OHDA-induced neurodegeneration in the SNpc of rats. We demonstrated that chronic subcutaneous administration of lithium inhibited GSK3 activity in the SNpc, which was evident by an increase in phosphorylation of GSK3β at serine 9, cyclin D1 expression, and a decrease in tau phosphorylation. 6-OHDA did not affect GSK3 activity in the SNpc. Moreover, lithium was unable to alleviate 6-OHDA-induced degeneration of SNpc dopaminergic neurons. The results suggest that GSK3 is minimally involved in the neurodegeneration in the rat 6-OHDA model of PD.
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278
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Joyner PM, Cichewicz RH. Bringing natural products into the fold – exploring the therapeutic lead potential of secondary metabolites for the treatment of protein-misfolding-related neurodegenerative diseases. Nat Prod Rep 2011; 28:26-47. [DOI: 10.1039/c0np00017e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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279
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McArthur S, Gillies GE. Peripheral vs. Central Sex Steroid Hormones in Experimental Parkinson's Disease. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2011; 2:82. [PMID: 22649388 PMCID: PMC3355917 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2011.00082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2011] [Accepted: 11/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The nigrostriatal dopaminergic (NSDA) pathway degenerates in Parkinson's disease (PD), which occurs with approximately twice the incidence in men than women. Studies of the influence of systemic estrogens in females suggest sex hormones contribute to these differences. In this review we analyze the evidence revealing great complexity in the response of the healthy and injured NSDA system to hormonal influences, and emphasize the importance of centrally generated estrogens. At physiological levels, circulating estrogen (in females) or estrogen precursors (testosterone in males, aromatized to estrogen centrally) have negligible effects on dopaminergic neuron survival in experimental PD, but can modify striatal dopamine levels via actions on the activity or adaptive responses of surviving cells. However, these effects are sexually dimorphic. In females, estradiol promotes adaptive responses in the partially injured NSDA pathway, preserving striatal dopamine, whereas in males gonadal steroids and exogenous estradiol have a negligible or even suppressive effect, effectively exacerbating dopamine loss. On balance, the different effects of gonadal factors in males and females contribute to sex differences in experimental PD. Fundamental sex differences in brain organization, including the sexually dimorphic networks regulating NSDA activity are likely to underpin these responses. In contrast, estrogen generated locally appears to preserve striatal dopamine in both sexes. The available data therefore highlight the need to understand the biological basis of sex-specific responses of the NSDA system to peripheral hormones, so as to realize the potential for sex-specific, hormone-based therapies in PD. Furthermore, they suggest that targeting central steroid generation could be equally effective in preserving striatal dopamine in both sexes. Clarification of the relative roles of peripheral and central sex steroid hormones is thus an important challenge for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon McArthur
- Department of Medicine, Centre for Neuroscience, Imperial College LondonLondon, UK
- *Correspondence: Simon McArthur, Department of Medicine, Centre for Neuroscience, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK. e-mail:
| | - Glenda E. Gillies
- Department of Medicine, Centre for Neuroscience, Imperial College LondonLondon, UK
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280
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Dyskinetic potential of dopamine agonists is associated with different striatonigral/striatopallidal zif-268 expression. Exp Neurol 2010; 224:395-402. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2010] [Revised: 04/23/2010] [Accepted: 04/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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281
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Ariza D, Lima MMS, Moreira CG, Dombrowski PA, Avila TV, Allemand A, B Mendes DAG, Cunha CD, Vital MABF. Intranigral LPS Administration Produces Dopamine, Glutathione but not Behavioral Impairment in Comparison to MPTP and 6-OHDA Neurotoxin Models of Parkinson’s Disease. Neurochem Res 2010; 35:1620-7. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-010-0222-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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282
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Gillies GE, McArthur S. Estrogen actions in the brain and the basis for differential action in men and women: a case for sex-specific medicines. Pharmacol Rev 2010; 62:155-98. [PMID: 20392807 PMCID: PMC2879914 DOI: 10.1124/pr.109.002071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 473] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The classic view of estrogen actions in the brain was confined to regulation of ovulation and reproductive behavior in the female of all mammalian species studied, including humans. Burgeoning evidence now documents profound effects of estrogens on learning, memory, and mood as well as neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative processes. Most data derive from studies in females, but there is mounting recognition that estrogens play important roles in the male brain, where they can be generated from circulating testosterone by local aromatase enzymes or synthesized de novo by neurons and glia. Estrogen-based therapy therefore holds considerable promise for brain disorders that affect both men and women. However, as investigations are beginning to consider the role of estrogens in the male brain more carefully, it emerges that they have different, even opposite, effects as well as similar effects in male and female brains. This review focuses on these differences, including sex dimorphisms in the ability of estradiol to influence synaptic plasticity, neurotransmission, neurodegeneration, and cognition, which, we argue, are due in a large part to sex differences in the organization of the underlying circuitry. There are notable sex differences in the incidence and manifestations of virtually all central nervous system disorders, including neurodegenerative disease (Parkinson's and Alzheimer's), drug abuse, anxiety, and depression. Understanding the cellular and molecular basis of sex differences in brain physiology and responses to estrogen and estrogen mimics is, therefore, vitally important for understanding the nature and origins of sex-specific pathological conditions and for designing novel hormone-based therapeutic agents that will have optimal effectiveness in men or women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenda E Gillies
- Centre for Neuroscience, Department of Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, DuCane Road, London W12ONN, UK.
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283
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Electrophysiological and neurochemical characterization of 7-nitroindazole and molsidomine acute and sub-chronic administration effects in the dopaminergic nigrostrial system in rats. JOURNAL OF NEURAL TRANSMISSION. SUPPLEMENTUM 2010:173-82. [PMID: 20411777 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-211-92660-4_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) plays an important role in the integration of information processed by the basal ganglia nuclei. Accordingly, considerable evidence has emerged indicating a role for NO in pathophysiological conditions such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and other neurodegenerative disorders. Despite these recent advances, the nitrergic modulation of the dopamine (DA) nigrostriatal system is still unclear. In order to fill this gap, in this study we used in vivo electrophysiology and ex vivo neurochemical analysis to further investigate the effect of NO signaling in rat substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and the striatum. Acute and subchronic (4 days) pharmacological manipulation of the NO system using 7-nitroindazole (7-NI, 50 mg kg(-1) i.p.) and molsidomine (MOL, 40 mg kg(-1) i.p.) treatment caused significant changes in both DA SNc neurons electrophysiological properties and striatal DA and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) levels. It is worth noting that acute inhibition of NO production decreased DA nigrostriatal neurotransmission while its subchronic inhibition was instead excitatory. Thus, a crucial role for NO in the modulation of nigrostriatal DA function is suggested together with a potential role for inhibitors of NO sythase in the treatment of PD.
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284
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Herrera-Marschitz M, Arbuthnott G, Ungerstedt U. The rotational model and microdialysis: Significance for dopamine signalling, clinical studies, and beyond. Prog Neurobiol 2010; 90:176-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2008] [Revised: 11/25/2008] [Accepted: 01/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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285
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Gillies GE, McArthur S. Independent influences of sex steroids of systemic and central origin in a rat model of Parkinson's disease: A contribution to sex-specific neuroprotection by estrogens. Horm Behav 2010; 57:23-34. [PMID: 19538962 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2009] [Revised: 06/02/2009] [Accepted: 06/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This review considers evidence which reveals considerable complexity and sex differences in the response of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic (NSDA) system to hormonal influences. This pathway degenerates in Parkinson's disease (PD) and sex hormones contribute to sex differences in PD, where men fare worse than women. Here we discuss evidence from animal studies which allows us to hypothesize that, contrary to expectations, the acclaimed neuroprotective property of physiological concentrations of estradiol arises not by promoting NSDA neuron survival, but by targeting powerful adaptive responses in the surviving neurons, which restore striatal DA functionality until over 60% of neurons are lost. Estrogen generated locally in the NSDA region appears to promote these adaptive mechanisms in females and males to preserve striatal DA levels in the partially injured NSDA pathway. However, responses to systemic steroids differ between the sexes. In females there is general agreement that gonadal steroids and exogenous estradiol promote striatal adaptation in the partially injured NSDA pathway to protect against striatal DA loss. In contrast, the balance of evidence suggests that in males gonadal factors and exogenous estradiol have negligible or even harmful effects. Sex differences in the organization of NSDA-related circuitry may well account for these differences. Compensatory mechanisms and sexually dimorphic hard-wiring are therefore likely to represent important biological substrates for sex dimorphisms. As these processes may be targeted differentially by systemic steroids in males and females, further understanding of the underlying processes would provide valuable insights into the potential for hormone-based therapies in PD, which would need to be sex-specific. Alternatively, evidence that estrogen generated locally is protective in the injured male NSDA pathway indicates the great therapeutic potential of harnessing central steroid synthesis to ameliorate neurodegenerative disorders. A clearer understanding of the relative contributions and inter-relationships of central and systemic steroids within the NSDA system is an important goal for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenda E Gillies
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, UK.
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286
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Granado N, Ares-Santos S, O'Shea E, Vicario-Abejón C, Colado MI, Moratalla R. Selective vulnerability in striosomes and in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway after methamphetamine administration : early loss of TH in striosomes after methamphetamine. Neurotox Res 2009; 18:48-58. [PMID: 19760475 PMCID: PMC2875475 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-009-9106-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2009] [Revised: 07/30/2009] [Accepted: 08/21/2009] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH), a commonly abused psychostimulant, causes dopamine neurotoxicity in humans, rodents, and nonhuman primates. This study examined the selective neuroanatomical pattern of dopaminergic neurotoxicity induced by METH in the mouse striatum. We examined the effect of METH on tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and dopamine transporter (DAT) immunoreactivity in the different compartments of the striatum and in the nucleus accumbens. The levels of dopamine and its metabolites, 3,4-dihidroxyphenylacetic acid and homovanillic acid, as well as serotonin (5-HT) and its metabolite, 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid, were also quantified in the striatum. Mice were given three injections of METH (4 mg/kg, i.p.) at 3 h intervals and sacrificed 7 days later. This repeated METH injection induced a hyperthermic response and a decrease in striatal concentrations of dopamine and its metabolites without affecting 5-HT concentrations. In addition, the drug caused a reduction in TH- and DAT-immunoreactivity when compared to saline-treated animals. Interestingly, there was a significantly greater loss of TH- and DAT-immunoreactivity in striosomes than in the matrix. The predominant loss of dopaminergic terminals in the striosomes occurred along the rostrocaudal axis of the striatum. In contrast, METH did not decrease TH- or DAT-immunoreactivity in the nucleus accumbens. These results provide the first evidence that compartments of the mouse striatum, striosomes and matrix, and mesolimbic and nigrostriatal pathways have different vulnerability to METH. This pattern is similar to that observed with other neurotoxins such as MPTP, the most widely used model of Parkinson’s disease, in early Huntington’s disease and hypoxic/ischemic injury, suggesting that these conditions might share mechanisms of neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Granado
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Avda. Dr. Arce 37, 28002, Madrid, Spain
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287
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Johnson KA, Conn PJ, Niswender CM. Glutamate receptors as therapeutic targets for Parkinson's disease. CNS & NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS DRUG TARGETS 2009; 8:475-91. [PMID: 19702565 DOI: 10.2174/187152709789824606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2009] [Accepted: 07/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor symptoms including tremor and bradykinesia. The primary pathophysiology underlying PD is the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta. Loss of these neurons causes pathological changes in neurotransmission in the basal ganglia motor circuit. The ability of ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors to modulate neurotransmission throughout the basal ganglia suggests that these receptors may be targets for reversing the effects of altered neurotransmission in PD. Studies in animal models suggest that modulating the activity of these receptors may alleviate the primary motor symptoms of PD as well as side effects induced by dopamine replacement therapy. Moreover, glutamate receptor ligands may slow disease progression by delaying progressive dopamine neuron degeneration. Antagonists of NMDA receptors have shown promise in reversing motor symptoms, levodopa-induced dyskinesias, and neurodegeneration in preclinical PD models. The effects of drugs targeting AMPA receptors are more complex; while antagonists of these receptors exhibit utility in the treatment of levodopa-induced dyskinesias, AMPA receptor potentiators show promise for neuroprotection. Pharmacological modulation of metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) may hold even more promise for PD treatment due to the ability of mGluRs to fine-tune neurotransmission. Antagonists of mGluR5, as well as activators of group II mGluRs and mGluR4, have shown promise in several animal models of PD. These drugs reverse motor deficits in addition to providing protection against neurodegeneration. Glutamate receptors therefore represent exciting targets for the development of novel pharmacological therapies for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kari A Johnson
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
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288
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He XJ, Nakayama H. Neurogenesis in Neurotoxin-induced Animal Models for Parkinson's Disease-A Review of the Current Status. J Toxicol Pathol 2009; 22:101-8. [PMID: 22271983 PMCID: PMC3246055 DOI: 10.1293/tox.22.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2008] [Accepted: 01/21/2009] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal models for Parkinson’s disease (PD) are essential for understanding its pathogenesis and for development and testing of new therapies. Discoveries of endogenous neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain give new insight into the cell-based approach for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, such as PD. Although a great deal of interest has been focused on endogenous neurogenesis in neurotoxin-induced animal models for PD, it still remains controversial whether neural stem cells migrate into the injured area and contribute to repopulation of depleted dopaminergic neurons in neurotoxin-injured adult brains. The purpose of this review is to examine the data available regarding neurogenesis in neurotoxin-induced animal models of PD. It is hoped that data from the animal investigations available in the literature will promote understanding of the neurotoxin-induced animal models for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Jun He
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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289
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Xi ZX, Kleitz HK, Deng X, Ladenheim B, Peng XQ, Li X, Gardner EL, Stein EA, Cadet JL. A single high dose of methamphetamine increases cocaine self-administration by depletion of striatal dopamine in rats. Neuroscience 2009; 161:392-402. [PMID: 19336247 PMCID: PMC3737775 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.03.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2009] [Revised: 03/20/2009] [Accepted: 03/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Psychostimulant addicts often take high doses of drugs, and high doses of psychostimulants such as methamphetamine (METH) are neurotoxic to striatal dopamine (DA) terminals. Yet, the effects of high doses of METH on drug-seeking and drug-taking behavior have not been examined. In the present study, we found that single high doses of METH in rats (10-20 mg/kg) dose-dependently increased cocaine self-administration under fixed-ratio 2 (FR2) reinforcement conditions, while higher doses (40 mg/kgx1 or 10 mg/kg/2 hx4) caused high mortality among rats maintained on daily cocaine self-administration. The increased cocaine self-administration appeared to be a compensatory response to reduced cocaine reward after METH, because the same doses of METH caused a dose-dependent reduction both in "break-point" levels for cocaine self-administration under progressive-ratio reinforcement and in nucleus accumbens DA response to acute cocaine. Further, METH (10-20 mg/kg) produced large DA release (4000%-6000% over baseline), followed by a significant reduction in striatal DA and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) contents, but without significant changes in striatal DA transporter levels. These findings suggest that the present high doses of METH caused striatal DA depletion or hypofunction without severe damage in DA terminals, which may contribute to the increased cocaine-taking behavior observed in the present study. Provided that the present doses of METH may mimic METH overdose incidents in humans, the present findings suggest that METH-induced DA depletion or neurotoxicity may lead to an increase in subsequent drug-taking and drug-seeking behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z-X Xi
- Chemical Biology Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, 251 Bayview Boulevard, BRC Room 05A705, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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290
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Molecular and neurochemical mechanisms in PD pathogenesis. Neurotox Res 2009; 16:271-9. [PMID: 19526278 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-009-9059-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2009] [Revised: 04/07/2009] [Accepted: 04/29/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Oxidation of dopamine to aminochrome seems to be a normal process leading to aminochrome polymerization to form neuromelanin, since normal individuals have this pigment in their dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. The neurons lost in individuals with Parkinson's disease are dopaminergic neurons containing neuromelanin. This raises two questions. First, why are those cells containing neuromelanin lost in this disease? Second, what is the identity of the neurotoxin that induces this cell death? We propose that aminochrome is the agent responsible for the death of dopaminergic neurons containing neuromelanin in individuals with Parkinson's disease. The normal oxidative pathway of dopamine, in which aminochrome polymerizes to form neuromelanin, can be neurotoxic if DT-diaphorase is inhibited under certain conditions. Inhibition of DT-diaphorase allows two neurotoxic reactions to proceed: (i) the formation of aminochrome adducts with alpha-synuclein, which induce and stabilize the formation of neurotoxic protofibrils; and (ii) the one electron reduction of aminochrome to the neurotoxic leukoaminochrome o-semiquinone radical. Therefore, we propose that DT-diaphorase is an important neuroprotective enzyme in dopaminergic neurons containing neuromelanin.
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291
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Di Matteo V, Pierucci M, Benigno A, Crescimanno G, Esposito E, Di Giovanni G. Involvement of nitric oxide in nigrostriatal dopaminergic system degeneration: a neurochemical study . Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009; 1155:309-15. [PMID: 19250222 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2008.03678.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The present study was undertaken to explore the involvement of nitric oxide (NO) in the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) experimental model of Parkinson's disease (PD) in rats. The effect of pharmacological manipulation of the NO system was evaluated on striatal dopamine (DA) level decrease produced by the toxin. 7-nitroindazole (7-NI, 50 mg/kg i.p.; n= 5) pretreatment significantly restored the striatal DA contents. Conversely, 40 mg/kg i.p. of molsidomine (MOL, n= 5), an NO donor, significantly worsened the neurodegeneration (n= 5) and completely counteracted the neuroprotective effect of 7-NI (n= 5). Thus, a crucial role for NO in 6-OHDA induced neurodegeneration is suggested together with a protective benefit for inhibitors of NOS in the treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Di Matteo
- Instituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Consorzio Mario Negri Sud, Santa Maria Imbaro (Chieti), Italy
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292
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Using the MATRICS to guide development of a preclinical cognitive test battery for research in schizophrenia. Pharmacol Ther 2009; 122:150-202. [PMID: 19269307 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2009] [Accepted: 02/17/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia are among the core symptoms of the disease, correlate with functional outcome, and are not well treated with current antipsychotic therapies. In order to bring together academic, industrial, and governmental bodies to address this great 'unmet therapeutic need', the NIMH sponsored the Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia (MATRICS) initiative. Through careful factor analysis and consensus of expert opinion, MATRICS identified seven domains of cognition that are deficient in schizophrenia (attention/vigilance, working memory, reasoning and problem solving, processing speed, visual learning and memory, verbal learning and memory, and social cognition) and recommended a specific neuropsychological test battery to probe these domains. In order to move the field forward and outline an approach for translational research, there is a need for a "preclinical MATRICS" to develop a rodent test battery that is appropriate for drug development. In this review, we outline such an approach and review current rodent tasks that target these seven domains of cognition. The rodent tasks are discussed in terms of their validity for probing each cognitive domain as well as a brief overview of the pharmacology and manipulations relevant to schizophrenia for each task.
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293
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Silvestrin RB, de Oliveira LF, Batassini C, Oliveira A, e Souza TM. The footfault test as a screening tool in the 6-hydroxydopamine rat model of Parkinson's disease. J Neurosci Methods 2009; 177:317-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2008.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2008] [Revised: 09/19/2008] [Accepted: 10/15/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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294
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Rodriguez-Pallares J, Parga JA, Joglar B, Guerra MJ, Labandeira-Garcia JL. The Mitochondrial ATP-Sensitive Potassium Channel Blocker 5-Hydroxydecanoate Inhibits Toxicity of 6-Hydroxydopamine on Dopaminergic Neurons. Neurotox Res 2009; 15:82-95. [DOI: 10.1007/s12640-009-9010-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2008] [Revised: 12/12/2008] [Accepted: 12/17/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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295
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Zhang Z, Wang T, Cao X, Sun S, Wang L. 6-OHDA induces cycle reentry and apoptosis of PC12 cells through activation of ERK1/2 signaling pathway. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 29:97-100. [PMID: 19224173 DOI: 10.1007/s11596-009-0121-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2008] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effect and mechanism of cell cycle reentry induced by 6-hydrodopamine (6-OHDA) in PC12 cells. By using neural differentiated PC12 cells treated with 6-OHDA, the apoptosis model of dopaminergic neurons was established. Cell viability was measured by MTT. Cell apoptosis and the distribution of cell cycle were assessed by flow cytometry. Western blot was used to detect the activation of extracellular regulator kinase1/2 (ERK1/2) pathway and the phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein (RB). Our results showed that after PC12 cells were treated wtih 6-OHDA, the viability of PC12 cells was declined in a concentration-dependent manner. Flow cytometry revealed that 6-OHDA could increase the apoptosis ratio of PC12 cells in a time-dependent manner. The percentage of cells in G0/G1 phase of cell cycle was decreased and that in S phase and G2/M phase increased. Simultaneously, ERK1/2 pathway was activated and phosphorylated RB increased. It was concluded that 6-OHDA could induce cell cycle reentry of dopaminergic neurons through the activation of ERK1/2 pathway and RB phosphorylation. The aberrant cell cycle reentry contributes to the apoptosis of dopaminergic neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhentao Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
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296
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Nilsson A, Fälth M, Zhang X, Kultima K, Sköld K, Svenningsson P, Andrén PE. Striatal alterations of secretogranin-1, somatostatin, prodynorphin, and cholecystokinin peptides in an experimental mouse model of Parkinson disease. Mol Cell Proteomics 2009; 8:1094-104. [PMID: 19131325 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m800454-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The principal causative pathology of Parkinson disease is the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta projecting to the striatum in the brain. The information regarding the expression of neuropeptides in parkinsonism is very limited. Here we have elucidated striatal neuropeptide mechanisms in experimental parkinsonism using the unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine model to degenerate dopamine neurons. A thoroughly controlled sample preparation technique together with a peptidomics approach and targeted neuropeptide sequence collections enabled sensitive detection, identification, and relative quantitation of a great number of endogenous neuropeptides. Previously not recognized alterations in neuropeptide levels were identified in the unilateral lesioned mice with or without subchronic 3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine administration, the conventional treatment of Parkinson disease. Several of these peptides originated from the same precursor such as secretogranin-1, somatostatin, prodynorphin, and cholecystokinin. Disease-related biotransformation of precursors into individual peptides was observed in the experimental model of Parkinson disease. Several previously unreported potentially biologically active peptides were also identified from the striatal samples. This study provides further evidence that neuropeptides take part in mediating the central nervous system failure associated with Parkinson disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Nilsson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Medical Mass Spectrometry, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden
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297
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Kamat CD, Gadal S, Mhatre M, Williamson KS, Pye QN, Hensley K. Antioxidants in central nervous system diseases: preclinical promise and translational challenges. J Alzheimers Dis 2009; 15:473-93. [PMID: 18997301 DOI: 10.3233/jad-2008-15314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Oxidative damage is strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease and stroke (brain ischemia/reperfusion injury). The availability of transgenic and toxin-inducible models of these conditions has facilitated the preclinical evaluation of putative antioxidant agents ranging from prototypic natural antioxidants such as vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) to sophisticated synthetic free radical traps and catalytic oxidants. Literature review shows that antioxidant therapies have enjoyed general success in preclinical studies across disparate animal models, but little benefit in human intervention studies or clinical trials. Recent high-profile failures of vitamin E trials in Parkinson's disease, and nitrone therapies in stroke, have diminished enthusiasm to pursue antioxidant neuroprotectants in the clinic. The translational disappointment of antioxidants likely arises from a combination of factors including failure to understand the drug candidate's mechanism of action in relationship to human disease, and failure to conduct preclinical studies using concentration and time parameters relevant to the clinical setting. This review discusses the rationale for using antioxidants in the prophylaxis or mitigation of human neurodiseases, with a critical discussion regarding ways in which future preclinical studies may be adjusted to offer more predictive value in selecting agents for translation into human trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandrashekhar D Kamat
- Free Radical Biology and Aging Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
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298
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Lima MMS, Reksidler ABB, Vital MABF. The neurobiology of the substantia nigra pars compacta: from motor to sleep regulation. JOURNAL OF NEURAL TRANSMISSION. SUPPLEMENTUM 2009:135-45. [PMID: 20411774 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-211-92660-4_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Clinical characteristics of Parkinson's disease (PD) are the result of the degeneration of the neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Several mechanisms are implicated in the degeneration of nigrostriatal neurons such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, protein misfolding, disturbances of dopamine (DA) metabolism and transport, neuroinflammation, and necrosis/apoptosis. The literature widely explores the neurotoxic models elicited by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Because of the models, it is known that basal ganglia, particularly substantia nigra, have been related to a diversity of functions, from motor to sleep regulation. Nevertheless, a current debate concerning the role of DA on the sleep-wake cycle is in progress. In summary, it is suggested that the dopaminergic system is implicated in the physiology of sleep, with particular regard to the influence of the SNpc neurons. The understanding of the functioning and connectivity of the SNpc neurons has become fundamental to discovering the neurobiology of these neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo M S Lima
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário, Trindade, Florianópolis SC 88049-900, Brazil.
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299
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Di Giovanni G, Esposito E, Di Matteo V. In vivo microdialysis in Parkinson's research. JOURNAL OF NEURAL TRANSMISSION. SUPPLEMENTUM 2009:223-43. [PMID: 20411781 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-211-92660-4_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that is primarily characterized by the degeneration of dopamine (DA) neurons in the nigrostriatal system, which in turn produces profound neurochemical changes within the basal ganglia, representing the neural substrate for parkinsonian motor symptoms. The pathogenesis of the disease is still not completely understood, but environmental and genetic factors are thought to play important roles. Research into the pathogenesis and the development of new therapeutic intervention strategies that will slow or stop the progression of the disease in human has rapidly advanced by the use of neurotoxins that specifically target DA neurons. Over the years, a broad variety of experimental models of the disease has been developed and applied in diverse animal species. The two most common toxin models used employ 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) and the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine/1-methyl-4-phenilpyridinium ion (MPTP/MPP+), either given systemically or locally applied into the nigrostriatal pathway, to resemble PD features in animals. Both neurotoxins selectively and rapidly destroy catecolaminergic neurons, although with different mechanisms. Since in vivo microdialysis coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography is an established technique for studying physiological, pharmacological, and pathological changes of a wide range of low molecular weight substances in the brain extracellular fluid, here we review the most prominent animal and human data obtained by the use of this technique in PD research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Di Giovanni
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sezione di Fisiologia Umana, G. Pagano, Universitá degli Studi di Palermo, 90134, Palermo, Italy
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300
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Focke A, Schwarz S, Foerschler A, Scheibe J, Milosevic J, Zimmer C, Schwarz J. Labeling of human neural precursor cells using ferromagnetic nanoparticles. Magn Reson Med 2008; 60:1321-8. [DOI: 10.1002/mrm.21745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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