Potentially inappropriate medications in the elderly: a French consensus panel list

[Potentially inappropriate medication in elderly primary care patients : A retrospective, longitudinal analysis]

BACKGROUND

Elderly people are often burdened by several diseases. This accounts for a higher medication intake and increases the risk of adverse drug events. To minimize this risk, several lists (Beers, PRISCUS) have been published of drugs that elderly patients should not take. We present a longitudinal analysis of the use of potentially inappropriate medication (PIM) over a period 4.5 years in a cohort of patients aged 75 years or more.

METHODS

Data were collected from the prospective, multicenter, observational study "German Study on Ageing, Cognition and Dementia in Primary Care Patients (AgeCoDe)," initially enrolling 3,327 patients. We investigated the prevalence of PIM by checking medications during visits to patients' homes. Furthermore, we analyzed the use of individual PIM agents over time.

RESULTS

At baseline, we found a PIM prevalence of 29 % according to the PRISCUS list, which decreased to 25.0 % 4.5 years later (χ(2): 7.87, p = 0.004). The Beers list yielded a prevalence of 21 % at baseline, decreasing after 4.5 years to 17.1 % (χ(2): 10.77, p = 0.000). A time-dependent multilevel model confirmed these results. Older age, depression, and the use of numerous prescribed agents are independent risk factors for using a PRISCUS-PIM.

CONCLUSION

Our results seem to support a trend toward a more rational drug therapy because fewer patients were prescribed PIM. Thus, for the individual patient, the risk of adverse effects and side effects is reduced as are the costs of these effects.

Appropriate prescribing in older people

Prescribing for older people is often complex and challenging. With age, people almost invariably develop diseases leading to the prescription of drugs and the risk of multiple prescribing increases, especially if there is strict adherence to single disease guidelines. There remains a paucity of evidence from clinical trials as to the efficacy of many drugs in patients aged over 80 years due to the gross under-representation of older people in clinical trials. Older people are also at increased risk of adverse drug events, which are an important cause of morbidity and mortality. A significant percentage of these are both predictable and potentially avoidable.

In this updated review the concept of appropriate prescribing in older people is explored, including the importance of individualized care and shared decision-making. The available tools to enhance prescribing practice are examined, including those aimed at reducing inappropriate prescriptions and under prescribing. The limitations of existing tools are discussed and areas with particular promise and scope for advancement are highlighted, including the development of integrated IT systems and software engines to aid clinicians in appropriate prescribing.

Prise en charge de l’anxiété et l’insomnie chez la personne âgée dans un établissement psychiatrique

Introduction

La prise en charge des troubles anxieux et de l’insomnie chez la personne âgée a fait l’objet d’une évaluation des pratiques professionnelles (EPP), réalisée prospectivement sur une semaine. Cette étude a révélé que 40 à 66 % des prescriptions chez la personne de plus de 65 ans comportaient des médicaments dits « inappropriés » au regard du rapport bénéfice/risque (liste de Laroche).

Objectif

Élaborer des recommandations portant sur les moyens thérapeutiques permettant d’appréhender l’anxiété et l’insomnie chez la personne âgée dans un établissement psychiatrique.

Matériel/méthode

Une recherche bibliographique associée à l’expérience de différents cliniciens du groupe EPP, ont permis l’élaboration de stratégies thérapeutiques (médicamenteuses ou non) à privilégier, compte tenu de l’arsenal thérapeutique à disposition. Une validation institutionnelle a été réalisée.

Résultats

Deux arbres décisionnels synthétisent les différentes étapes de prise en charge de l’insomnie et de l’anxiété chez la personne âgée. Dans un premier temps, la correction des facteurs étiologiques et l’application des règles hygiéno-diététiques sont mises en avant. L’abord psychothérapeutique (thérapie cognitive et comportementale) est également privilégié en amont de la prescription de psychotropes. L’approche pharmacologique n’est envisagée qu’ultérieurement en utilisant les molécules à demi-vie courte, à faible dose sur une courte durée, limitant ainsi le risque d’effets indésirables. Le positionnement des molécules ou classes médicamenteuses les unes par rapport aux autres dans l’insomnie (antihistaminiques, benzodiazépines et apparentés, neuroleptiques), dans l’anxiété (antidépresseurs, benzodiazépines, buspirone, prégabaline, neuroleptiques anxiolytiques) est précisé.

Discussion

Les données retrouvées dans la littérature relatives à la prise en charge de l’insomnie et l’anxiété chez la personne âgée s’adressent majoritairement à une population de gérontologie sans comorbidités psychiatriques. Ainsi, les recommandations, notamment de la Haute Autorité de santé (HAS) ne sont pas toujours applicables en l’état aux patients présents dans les services de psychogérontologie.

Developing consensus on hospital prescribing indicators of potential harms amenable to decision support

AIMS

To develop a list of prescribing indicators specific for the hospital setting that would facilitate the prospective collection of high-severity and/or high-frequency prescribing errors, which are also amenable to electronic clinical decision support.

METHODS

A two-stage consensus technique (electronic Delphi) was carried out with 20 experts across England. Participants were asked to score prescribing errors using a five-point Likert scale for their likelihood of occurrence and the severity of the most likely outcome. These were combined to produce risk scores, from which median scores were calculated for each indicator across the participants in the study. The degree of consensus between the participants was defined as the proportion that gave a risk score in the same category as the median. Indicators were included if a consensus of 80% or more was achieved.

RESULTS

A total of 80 prescribing errors were identified by consensus as being high or extreme risk. The most common drug classes named within the indicators were antibiotics (n = 13), antidepressants (n = 8), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (n = 6) and opioid analgesics (n = 6). The most frequent error type identified as high or extreme risk were those classified as clinical contraindications (n = 29 of 80).

CONCLUSIONS

Eighty high-risk prescribing errors in the hospital setting have been identified by an expert panel. These indicators can serve as a standardized, validated tool for the collection of prescribing data in both paper-based and electronic prescribing processes. This can assess the impact of safety improvement initiatives, such as the implementation of electronic clinical decision support.

[Quality and appropriateness of pain medication. Instrument for estimation in nursing home residents]

BACKGROUND

The pain medication appropriateness scale (PMASD) was developed in 2006 in the USA to evaluate the quality and appropriateness of pain treatment in nursing home residents (NHR). This tool can be used to identify potential problems with the pharmacological treatment of pain.

METHODS

We developed a German version (PMASD) adapted to the German setting and applied it in Germany to NHR with and without cognitive impairment for the first time. In agreement with the original instrument a test result of >67 % was considered as appropriate pain treatment.

RESULTS

For the 560 analyzed NHR the average SPMAS score was 39±1,7 (range from -67 to +100). Overall 72% of the study population did not achieve the defined threshold for appropriate pain management.

CONCLUSIONS

An appropriate tool for quantitative evaluation of pain treatment was so far not available in Germany. The PMASD analysis showed deficits of pain management in NHR. This tool showed good practicability in Germany and could provide a valuable tool for pain treatment in clinical research and practice.

Inappropriate prescribing: a systematic overview of published assessment tools

BACKGROUND

Criteria to assess the appropriateness of prescriptions might serve as a helpful guideline during professional training and in daily practice, with the aim to improve a patient's pharmacotherapy.

OBJECTIVE

To create a comprehensive and structured overview of existing tools to assess inappropriate prescribing.

METHOD

Systematic literature search in Pubmed (1991-2013). The following properties of the tools were extracted and mapped in a structured way: approach (explicit, implicit), development method (consensus technique, expert panel, literature based), focused patient group, health care setting, and covered aspects of inappropriate prescribing.

RESULTS

The literature search resulted in 46 tools to assess inappropriate prescribing.Twenty-eight (61%) of 46 tools were explicit, 8 (17%) were implicit and 10 (22%) used a mixed approach. Thirty-six (78%) tools named older people as target patients and 10 (22%) tools did not specify the target age group. Four (8.5%) tools were designed to detect inappropriate prescribing in hospitalised patients, 9 (19.5%) focused on patients in ambulatory care and 6 (13%) were developed for use in long-term care. Twenty-seven (59%) tools did not specify the health care setting. Consensus methods were applied in the development of 19 tools (41%), the others were based on either simple expert panels (13; 28%) or on a literature search (11; 24%). For three tools (7%) the development method was not described.

CONCLUSION

This overview reveals the characteristics of 46 assessment tools and can serve as a summary to assist readers in choosing a tool, either for research purposes or for daily practice use.

Relationship between anticholinergic drug use and one-year outcome among elderly people hospitalised in medical wards via emergency department: the SAFES cohort study

AIM

To investigate the relationship between anticholinergic drug use and one-year outcome of elderly patients hospitalised via the emergency department.

METHODS

Prospective, multicentre, cohort study of patients aged 75 years and older. Comprehensive geriatric evaluation was performed. We included in this analysis all patients for whom data on drug use was available. Anticholinergic drugs were coded using the online database "Thesorimed". One-year mortality and nursing home admission were analysed using a Cox model, with matching on the propensity to use anticholinergic drugs.

RESULTS

In total, 1176 subjects were included in this analysis, average age 85±6 years, 65% women. Overall, 144 (12%) were taking at least one anticholinergic drug. Mortality and nursing home admission at one year were respectively 29% and 30% in the anticholinergic group, and 34% and 33% respectively in subjects not taking anticholinergic drugs. No significant relationship was observed between anticholinergic drug use and the main endpoints.

CONCLUSION

Although we did not observed any statistically significant relationship between use of anticholinergic drugs and one-year outcome in elderly patients, the long-term use of anticholinergic drugs can have deleterious effects on memory and functional capacity, and therefore requires prescriptions to be reviewed regularly.

Senile dementia and pharmacological drugs

Side effects and drug interactions are common in the elderly and highly relevant in the demented, being routinely confused with symptoms of cognitive impairment. Which drugs are most consumed by this patient group? Do prescription patterns differ between the demented and non-demented?

Prescribing potentially inappropriate medication (PIM) in Germany's elderly as indicated by the PRISCUS list. An analysis based on regional claims data

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of potentially inappropriate medication (PIM) in the elderly as indicated by Germany's recently published list (PRISCUS) and to assess factors independently associated with PIM prescribing, both overall and separately for therapeutic groups.

METHODS

Claims data analysis (Health Insurance Sample AOK Hesse/KV Hesse, 18.75% random sample of insurants from AOK Hesse, Germany) is used in the study. The study population is composed of 73,665 insurants >64 years of age continuously insured in the last quarter of 2009 and either continuously insured or deceased in 2010. Prevalence estimates are standardized to the population of Germany (31 December 2010). The variables age, sex, polypharmacy, hospital stay and nursing care are assessed for their independent association with general PIM prescription and among 11 therapeutic subgroups using multivariate logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

In 2010, 22.0% of the elderly received at least one PIM prescription (men: 18.3%, women: 24.8%). The highest PIM prevalence was observed for antidepressants (6.5%), antihypertensives (3.8%) and antiarrhythmic drugs (3.5%). Amitriptyline, tetrazepam, doxepin, acetyldigoxin, doxazosin and etoricoxib were the most frequently prescribed PIMs. Multivariate analyses indicate that women (OR 1.39; 95% CI: 1.34-1.44) and persons with extreme polypharmacy (≥10 vs. <5 drugs: OR 5.16; 95% CI: 4.87-5.47) were at higher risk for receiving a PRISCUS-PIM. Risk analysis for therapeutic groups shows divergent associations.

CONCLUSION

PRISCUS-PIMs are widely used. Educational programs should focus on drugs with high treatment prevalence and call professionals' attention to those elderly patients who are at special risk for inappropriate medication.

Application of the STOPP/START criteria: a systematic review of the prevalence of potentially inappropriate prescribing in older adults, and evidence of clinical, humanistic and economic impact

WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE

Potentially inappropriate prescribing (PIP) has significant clinical, humanistic and economic impacts. Identifying PIP in older adults may reduce their burden of adverse drug events. Tools with explicit criteria are being developed to screen for PIP in this population. These tools vary in their ability to identify PIP in specific care settings and jurisdictions due to such factors as local prescribing practices and formularies. One promising set of screening tools are the STOPP (Screening Tool of Older Person's potentially inappropriate Prescriptions) and START (Screening Tool of Alert doctors to the Right Treatment) criteria. We conducted a systematic review of research studies that describe the application of the STOPP/START criteria and examined the evidence of the impact of STOPP/START on clinical, humanistic and economic outcomes in older adults.

METHODS

We performed a systematic review of studies from relevant biomedical databases and grey literature sources published from January 2007 to January 2012. We searched citation and reference lists and contacted content experts to identify additional studies. Two authors independently selected studies using a predefined protocol. We did not restrict selection to particular study designs; however, non-English studies were excluded during the selection process. Independent extraction of articles by two authors used predefined data fields. For randomized controlled trials and observational studies comparing STOPP/START to other explicit criteria, we assessed risk of bias using an adapted tool.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

We included 13 studies: a single randomized controlled trial and 12 observational studies. We performed a descriptive analysis as heterogeneity of study populations, interventions and study design precluded meta-analysis. All observational studies reported the prevalence of PIP; however, the application of the criteria was not consistent across all studies. Seven of the observational studies compared STOPP/START with other explicit criteria. The STOPP/START criteria were reported to be more sensitive than the more-frequently-cited Beers criteria in six studies, but less sensitive than a set of criteria developed in Australia. The STOPP criteria identified more medications associated with adverse drug events than the 2002 version of the Beers criteria. Patients with PIP, as identified by STOPP, had an 85% increased risk of adverse drug events in one study (OR = 1·85, 95% CI: 1·51-2·26; P < 0·001). There was limited evidence that the application of STOPP/START criteria optimized prescribing. Research involving the application of STOPP/START on the impact on the quality of life was not found. The direct costs of PIP were documented in three studies from Ireland, but more extensive analyses on the economic impact or studies from other jurisdictions were not found.

WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION

The STOPP/START criteria have been used to review the medication profiles of community-dwelling, acute care and long-term care older patients in Europe, Asia and North America. Observational studies have reported the prevalence and predictors of PIP. The STOPP/START criteria appear to be more sensitive than the 2002 version of the Beers criteria. Limited evidence was found related to the clinical and economic impact of the STOPP/START criteria.

Prevalence and associations of potentially inappropriate prescriptions in Austrian nursing home residents: secondary analysis of a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Potentially inappropriate prescriptions (PIP) are an important cause of adverse medication-related events and increases morbidity, hospitalization, and health care costs, especially in nursing home residents. However, little is known about the associations between PIP and residents' characteristics.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of our study was to analyse the prevalence and associations of PIP with residents' and facilities' characteristics.

METHODS

We performed a secondary analysis of a cross-sectional study with 48 out of 50 eligible nursing homes and 1,844 out of 2,005 eligible residents in a defined rural-urban area in Austria. The Austrian list of potentially inappropriate medications was applied for the evaluation of inappropriate prescribing. Cluster-adjusted multiple regression analysis was used to investigate institutional and residents' characteristics associated with PIP.

RESULTS

Mean cluster-adjusted prevalence of residents with at least one PIP was 70.3 % (95 % CI 67.2-73.4). The number of residents with at least one psychotropic PIP was 1.014 (55 %). The most often prescribed PIP were Prothipendyl (25.9 % residents), Lorazepam (14.5 %) and Diclofenac (6.1 %). Multiple regression analysis showed an inverse association of PIP with cognitive impairment and significant positive associations with permanent restlessness and permanent negative attitude. The associations of PIP with age and male gender were inconsistent. No significant associations were found for PIP and the ratio of staff nurses to residents.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study results confirm that PIP is highly prevalent in the nursing home population. These results urgently call for effective interventions. Initiatives and successful interventions performed in other countries could serve as examples for safer prescribing in residents in Austria.

Uncovering the source of new benzodiazepine prescriptions in community-dwelling older adults'

OBJECTIVE

Initiatives to reduce benzodiazepine use have been largely unsuccessful despite strong associations with adverse outcomes. Curtailing incident use of benzodizepines is an alternate strategy that has yet to be explored. This study aims to determine the source of incident benzodiazepine prescriptions by comparing the risk of receiving a new prescription upon hospital discharge versus after an ambulatory care clinic visit.

METHODS

Data were derived from 1189 community-dwelling adults aged 65 years naive to benzodiazepine consumption, enrolled in the Étude sur la Santé des Ainés, a prospective 3-year cohort study conducted in Québec, Canada. Health survey questionnaires were linked with provincial administrative databases of prescription and health service claims. Analysis with multivariate Poisson regression models compared the risk of incident benzodiazepine use post-hospitalization versus after an ambulatory care visit. Models were adjusted for sex, age, antidepressant use, and concomitant drugs. Sub-analyses were conducted for chronic prescriptions.

RESULTS

Incident benzodiazepine use was 11% over a 2-year period, with 18.3% of prescriptions leading to chronic use (> 90 days). Hospitalization conferred a 2.7-fold greater risk of incident use than an outpatient visit (OR 2.66, 95% CI 1.78-3.98) and a 4.7-fold (OR 4.74, 95% CI 1.63-13.78) increased risk of chronic use, after adjusting for potential confounders. Despite the increased risk, only 13% of new prescriptions originated post-hospital discharge, with the remainder prescribed during outpatient visits.

CONCLUSION

Interventions are required to curb incident benzodiazepine prescriptions at their source both in hospitals and in ambulatory care settings.

Medication review in hospitalised patients to reduce morbidity and mortality

BACKGROUND

Pharmacotherapy in the elderly population is complicated by several factors that increase the risk of drug related harms and poorer adherence. The concept of medication review is a key element in improving the quality of prescribing and the prevention of adverse drug events. While no generally accepted definition of medication review exists, it can be defined as a systematic assessment of the pharmacotherapy of an individual patient that aims to evaluate and optimise patient medication by a change (or not) in prescription, either by a recommendation or by a direct change. Medication review performed in adult hospitalised patients may lead to better patient outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

We examined whether the delivery of a medication review by a physician, pharmacist or other healthcare professional improves the health outcomes of hospitalised adult patients compared to standard care.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care (EPOC) Group's Specialised Register (August 2011); The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), The Cochrane Library 2011, Issue 8; MEDLINE (1946 to August 2011); EMBASE (1980 to August 2011); CINAHL (1980 to August 2011); International Pharmaceutical Abstracts (1970 to August 2011); and Web of Science (August 2011). In addition we searched reference lists of included trials and relevant reviews. We searched trials registries and contacted experts to identify additional published and unpublished trials. We did not apply any language restrictions.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of medication review in hospitalised adult patients. We excluded trials of outclinic and paediatric patients. Our primary outcome was all-cause mortality and secondary outcomes included hospital readmission, emergency department contacts and adverse drug events.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently included trials, extracted data and assessed trials for risk of bias. We contacted trial authors for clarification of data and additional unpublished data. We calculated relative risks for dichotomous data and mean differences for continuous data (with 95% confidence intervals (CIs)).

MAIN RESULTS

We identified 4647 references and included five trials (1186 participants). Follow-up ranged from 30 days to one year. We found no evidence of effect on all-cause mortality (risk ratio (RR) 0.98; 95% CI 0.78 to 1.23) and hospital readmissions (RR 1.01; 95% CI 0.88 to 1.16), but a 36% relative reduction in emergency department contacts (RR 0.64; 95% CI 0.46 to 0.89).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

It is uncertain whether medication review reduces mortality or hospital readmissions, but medication review seems to reduce emergency department contacts. However, the cost-effectiveness of this intervention is not known and due to the uncertainty of the estimates of mortality and readmissions and the short follow-up, important treatment effects may have been overlooked. Therefore, medication review should preferably be undertaken in the context of clinical trials. High quality trials with long follow-up are needed before medication review should be implemented.

[Potentially inappropriate medication: the quality of pharmacotherapy in the elderly]

Potentially inappropriate medication (PIM) in the elderly is a common problem in primary care. Depending on the setting under investigation, recent studies reported a prevalence of PIM up to 24% in Germany. In 2010 the German national PRISCUS list containing explicit criteria to identify PIM was published. First data show a possible association between PIM as defined by the Priscus list and negative health outcomes. However, prospective controlled trials are needed to assess whether interventions based on explicit criteria are able to improve patient-related outcome. Against this backdrop, the present review comments on recent data, especially those with impact for the German health care system.

Polypharmacy and incontinence

Polypharmacy as well as urinary incontinence are common geriatric problems. Possible adverse drug effects remain a matter of concern in geriatric medicine and must be considered in urinary incontinence. The occurrence or aggravation of lower urinary tract symptoms might be caused by medication, especially when the symptom is newly diagnosed. On the other hand geriatric patients are at an increased risk for adverse effects of medications, commonly used for treatment of urinary incontinence. Especially antimuscarinic drugs reveal several complex anticholinergic adverse effects. Therefore, knowledge of inappropriate medication and of possible adverse drug effects is important in the diagnostic evaluation and therapeutic considerations to prevent a cascade of symptom-related medications.

Drug-related problems in the elderly

The aging population in developed countries is a growing problem nowadays. The burden on healthcare is particularly high, since the prevalence of the diseases, especially chronic diseases increases with age. Prevalence of polypharmacy is common among elderly patients. While comorbidities require usage of several active agents with evidence based indication, polypharmacy increases the likelihood of interactions and adverse drug reactions, reduces patient compliance, affects quality of life and puts a significant financial burden on the patient and society. In order to reduce drug-related problems among the elderly, different lists of potentially inappropriate drugs and doses were created. One of the earliest known lists is the “Beers criteria”. The use of listed drugs is risky and not recommended for elderly patients. Following foreign examples, a list was compiled and adapted to the Hungarian drug spectrum based on the main concerns and alternative therapeutic suggestions. Orv. Hetil., 2012, 153, 1926–1936.

Specialist prescribing of psychotropic drugs to older persons in Sweden--a register-based study of 188,024 older persons

BACKGROUND

The situation for older persons with mental disorders other than dementia disorders has scarcely been studied. The older population is increasing worldwide and along with this increase the prevalence of mental disorders will also rise. The treatment of older persons with mental disorders entails complex challenges, with drugs constituting the major medical treatment. Knowledge of geriatric psychiatry is essential for providing older persons with appropriate treatment and care. This study aimed to evaluate the prescription of drugs for mental disorders to older persons (≥ 65) in Sweden, focused on the medical specialties of the prescribing physicians.

METHODS

Data concerning drug treatment for older persons from 2006 to 2008 was gathered from the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register. Mental disorders, defined as affective, psychotic and anxiety disorders (ICD-10 F20-42) were evaluated in order to identify associated drugs. Included was a total of 188,024 older individuals, who collectively filled 2,013,079 prescriptions for the treatment of mental disorders. Descriptive analyses were performed, including frequency distribution and 95% CI. The competence of the prescribers was analyzed by subdividing them into five groups: geriatricians, psychiatrists, general practitioners (GPs), other specialists, and physicians without specialist education.

RESULTS

GPs represented the main prescribers, whereas geriatricians and psychiatrists rarely prescribed drugs to older persons. Benzodiazepines and tricyclic antidepressants were the most commonly prescribed drugs. Women were prescribed drugs from geriatricians and psychiatrists to a greater extent than men.

CONCLUSIONS

This study examined the prescription of psychotropic drugs to older persons. Physicians specialized in older persons' disorders and mental health were rarely the prescribers of these drugs. Contrary to clinical guidelines, benzodiazepines and tricyclic antidepressants were commonly prescribed to older persons, emphasizing the need for continuous examination of pharmaceutical treatment for older persons. The results indicate a future need of more specialists in geriatrics and psychiatry.

Potentially inappropriate medications in a large cohort of patients in geriatric units: association with clinical and functional characteristics

OBJECTIVE

With the aim of reducing the risk of adverse drug effects, expert groups have defined lists of potentially inappropriate medications (PIM) for drug therapy in the elderly. However, it is unclear whether use of PIM at discharge from specialized geriatric units is associated with altered clinical characteristics.

METHODS

A post-hoc analysis of 376,335 drug prescriptions in 45,809 patients aged 70 years or older at discharge from 44 geriatric units located in Bavaria was performed (1 January 2009 to 31 December 2010). The main outcome measures were patient-related characteristics including functional status, which were independently associated in a multivariable logistic regression model with PIM at discharge.

RESULTS

Male gender was associated with a lower odds ratio (OR) for the use of PIM [OR 0.72, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.67-0.76, P < 0.001]. The Barthel score at discharge was associated with a modestly increased odds ratio for receiving at least one PIM (OR 1.00, 95 % CI 1.00-1.01, P < 0.001). Patients who were only able to walk with assistant or who were unable to walk in the Timed Up-and-Go-Test, had adjusted odds ratios of 1.18 (95 % CI 1.08-1.28, P < 0.001) and 1.22 (95 % CI 1.07-1.39, P = 0.003), respectively, for receiving PIM. In additional multivariate analyses we found no evidence for a significant impact of PIM use on the change in the Barthel score during the hospital stay and on the ability to walk.

CONCLUSIONS

Several factors, including gender and Barthel score, are associated with the use of drugs classified as potentially inappropriate for drug therapy in the elderly. However, the use of potentially inappropriate medications is not a clinically meaningful indicator of functional status at discharge.

Validation of prescribing appropriateness criteria for older Australians using the RAND/UCLA appropriateness method

OBJECTIVE

To further develop and validate previously published national prescribing appropriateness criteria to assist in identifying drug-related problems (DRPs) for commonly occurring medications and medical conditions in older (≥65 years old) Australians.

DESIGN

RAND/UCLA appropriateness method.

PARTICIPANTS

A panel of medication management experts were identified consisting of geriatricians/pharmacologists, clinical pharmacists and disease management advisors to organisations that produce Australian evidence-based therapeutic publications. This resulted in a round-one panel of 15 members, and a round-two panel of 12 members.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Agreement on all criteria.

RESULTS

Forty-eight prescribing criteria were rated. In the first rating round via email, there was disagreement regarding 17 of the criteria according to median panel ratings. During a face-to-face second round meeting, discussion resulted in retention of 25 criteria after amendments, agreement for 14 criteria with no changes required and deletion of 9 criteria. Two new criteria were added, resulting in a final validated list of 41 prescribing appropriateness criteria. Agreement after round two was reached for all 41 criteria, measured by median panel ratings and the amount of dispersion of panel ratings, based on the interpercentile range.

CONCLUSIONS

A set of 41 Australian prescribing appropriateness criteria were validated by an expert panel. Use of these criteria, together with clinical judgement and other medication review processes such as patient interview, is intended to assist in improving patient care by efficiently detecting potential DRPs related to commonly occurring medicines and medical conditions in older Australians. These criteria may also contribute to the medication management education of healthcare professionals.

Assessment of pharmacotherapeutic safety of medical prescriptions for elderly residents in a long-term care facility

The present study aimed to estimate the prevalence of elderly using potentially inappropriate medications (PIM) and with occurrence of potentially hazardous drug interactions (PHDI); to identify the risk factors for the prescription of PIM and to evaluate the impact of pharmaceutical intervention (PI) for the prescription of safer therapeutic alternatives. Therefore, a cross-sectional study was performed in a long-term care facility in São Paulo State, between December/2010 and January/2011. The medical records of the patients >60 years old who took any drugs were consulted to assess the pharmacotherapeutic safety of the medical prescriptions, in order to identify PIM and PHDI, according to the Beers (2003) and World Health Organization criteria, respectively. PI consisted of a guidance letter to the physician responsible for the institution, with the suggestions of safer equivalent therapeutics. Approximately 88% of the elderly took at least one drug, and for 30% of them the PIM had been prescribed. Most of the PIM identified (53.4%) act on the central nervous system. Among the 13 different DI detected, 6 are considered PHDI. Polypharmacy was detected as a risk factor for PIM prescription. After the PI there was no change in medical prescriptions of patients who had been prescribed PIM or PHDI. The data suggests that PI performed by letter, as the only interventional, method was ineffective. To contribute it a wide dissemination of PIM and PHDI among prescriber professionals is necessary for the selection of safer treatment for elderly. Additionally, a pharmacist should be part of the health care team in order to help promote rational use of medicines.

Potentially inappropriate drug use among older persons in Finland: application of a new national categorization

PURPOSE

The Finnish Medicines Agency published a new consensus categorization for potentially inappropriate drug (PID) use among persons aged 75 years and older (A = suitable, B = limited evidence, C = suitable for use under certain conditions only, D = inappropriate) in 2010. We investigated factors associated with use of one or more Category D drugs.

METHOD

Cross-sectional analyses were conducted using baseline data from the Geriatric Multidisciplinary Strategy for the Good Care of the Elderly (GeMS) Study collected in Kuopio, Finland, in 2004. From a random sample of 1000 persons aged 75 years and older, 781 persons provided consent to participate. Logistic regression was used to compute unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95 % confidence intervals (95 % CIs) for factors associated with PID use.

RESULTS

PIDs were used by 30 % (n = 234) of all participants on a regular or as-needed basis. Among the 764 persons (98 %) who used prescription or non-prescription drugs, PID use was associated with the number of drugs in use (adjusted OR 1.20; 95 % CI 1.13-1.28) and moderate self-rated health compared to good self-rated health (adjusted OR 1.74; 95 % CI 1.19-2.55). PID use was associated with poor maximum walking speed (adjusted OR 1.64; 95 % CI 1.10-2.45), poor Timed Up and Go (TUG) test scores (adjusted OR 1.66; 95 % CI 1.11-2.47), impaired instrumental activities of daily living (adjusted OR 1.50; 95 % CI 1.06-2.12) and Mini Mental State Examination scores <18 (adjusted OR 2.27; 95 % CI 1.41-3.65).

CONCLUSION

PID use was highly prevalent and associated with impaired functional outcomes. This highlights the importance of clinicians conducting regular reviews of drug therapy.

A critical analysis of the methods used to develop explicit clinical criteria for use in older people

Older people are the biggest users of medications and with the majority of the population ageing it is important to ensure that their medications are managed properly. Many have developed explicit criteria in order to assist in making appropriate drugs choices in the older population. This paper explores whether the methods used to develop the currently available explicit criteria for appropriate prescribing in older people are applied appropriately, and if not, whether this invalidates the criteria themselves. The wide spread use of the Delphi technique to develop medical criteria indicates that the technique itself should be evaluated for its suitability in the development of criteria in older people before the criteria are themselves evaluated. A number of criteria have been reviewed and none fulfils the requirements for appropriate development. There is a need for new criteria, with transparent referencing of recommendations and rigorous final evaluation.

Using published criteria to develop a list of potentially inappropriate medications for elderly patients in Taiwan

BACKGROUND

Explicit criteria for potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs) developed from other regions were often difficult to apply to a specific territory without significant modifications.

PURPOSE

To describe a process of developing a country-specific explicit PIM criteria from quality review of several published PIM criteria, followed by consensus among regional experts in Taiwan.

METHODS

After a review of the literature, we selected seven sets of published PIM criteria. Medications/medication classes listed in at least three of the seven sets of criteria were selected as preliminary core PIMs. We asked a group of 21 experts from various specialties to rate how appropriate they found inclusion of each medication/medication class in final PIM criteria after two rounds of modified Delphi methods.

RESULTS

Table 1 of the instrument included 24 medication/medication classes to be generally avoided in older adults irrespective of co-morbidities, and Table 2 included 12 chronic conditions with six medication/medication classes that patients with these conditions should avoid. The Taiwan criteria contained only half the number of statements that were included in the Beers criteria (36 vs 68 statements) but detected nearly 70-75% as many PIMs in older patients with polypharmacy in a secondary data analysis. Features included straightforward statement arrangements, suggestions of alternatives, and clear definitions of long-acting benzodiazepine and anticholinergic drugs for Table 1 PIMs.

CONCLUSION

A user-friendly instrument was developed to detect PIMs for Taiwanese older adults. Further prospective studies are needed to validate its use in clinical and research settings.

The frequency of prescription of immediate-release nifedipine for elderly patients in Germany: utilization analysis of a substance on the PRISCUS list of potentially inappropriate medications

BACKGROUND

Immediate-release nifedipine is on the PRISCUS list of drugs that should not be given to elderly patients. We studied the use of this calcium-channel blocker under real-life conditions.

METHODS

In 2009, we carried out a cross-sectional study based on the Statutory Health Insurance Sample AOK Hesse/KV Hesse with a sample size of 260 672 insurees. We used an anatomic-therapeutic-chemical classification (C08) to identify prescriptions for calcium-channel blockers. We determined from brand names and dosage forms whether nifedipine was prescribed in an immediate-release or sustained-release formulation.

RESULTS

Among insurees over age 65, the prevalence of treatment with immediate-release and sustained-release nifedipine was 0.9% and 1.0%, respectively. Immediate-release nifedipine was usually (75%) given in a single administration. 46% of patients receiving immediate-release nifedipine also received another calcium-channel blocker. Patients who received immediate-release nifedipine tended to take more cardiovascular drugs than those who received sustained-release nifedipine (6 or more cardiovascular drugs were taken by 30% and 16%, respectively). Among all medical diagnoses related to hypertension, two were significantly more common among patients taking immediate-release nifedipine than among those taking sustained-release nifedipine: hypertensive crisis (OR 4.26, 95% CI 2.45-7.40) and hypertensive heart disease (OR 1.82, 95% CI 1.04-3.19).

CONCLUSION

Our analysis demonstrates that immediate-release nifedipine is being prescribed to elderly patients in Germany, albeit mostly in a single administration. In view of the risks and the availability of alternative drugs, stricter adherence to the PRISCUS recommendations in this case should be stressed in continuing medical education.

Potentially inappropriate medications in the elderly: a comprehensive protocol

Elderly patients are at increased risk of drug-related morbidity and mortality. Avoiding the use of potentially inappropriate medications (PIMs) is one of the strategies that has been widely adopted to reduce the harmful consequences of drug use. There are several PIM screening tools available. In this review, we provide an overview of existing screening tools to detect PIMs in the elderly, emphasizing the advantages and disadvantages of each. Combining previously published and adopted tools (adjusted Beers list, French consensus panel, McLeod's list, and Lindblad's list of clinically important drug-disease interactions), we develop a new comprehensive tool that also includes the adjusted Hanlon's and Malone's lists of potentially serious drug-drug interactions in the elderly. In addition to listed PIMs and clinically important drug-drug interactions, alternative therapeutic solutions are suggested. The new protocol differentiates: drugs with an unfavorable benefit/risk ratio (to be avoided regardless of the underlying disease/condition), drugs with a questionable efficacy, and drugs to be avoided with certain diseases/conditions, and provides a list of potentially serious drug-drug interactions. A tool consisting of PIMs and potential drug-drug interactions within the same protocol provides more comprehensive quality assessment of drug-prescribing behavior to the elderly, which in turn may lead to better prescribing practices.

Prescribing of potentially inappropriate medications for the elderly: an analysis based on the PRISCUS list

BACKGROUND

The PRISCUS list of potentially inappropriate medications (PIM) for the elderly was published in 2010 and is the first systematically constructed list of this type in Germany. The aim of the present study is to estimate the baseline prevalence of the prescribing of PIM, as defined by the PRISCUS list.

METHODS

Pseudonymized claims data from three statutory health insurances in Germany, which together covered more than 8 million insurants, for the year 2007 were used to determine the age- and sex-standardized one-year period prevalence of PIM among the elderly, as well as the frequency of PIM prescribing per person. The study population included all insurants who were at least 65 years old and were continuously insured throughout the year 2007 or died during that year.

RESULTS

Of the 804 400 elderly persons in the study population, 201 472 (25.0%) received at least one PIM prescription in 2007. The PIM prevalence was higher in women than in men (32.0% vs. 23.3%) and increased with age. The most commonly prescribed PIM were amitriptyline (2.6%), acetyldigoxin (2.4%), tetrazepam (2.0%), and oxazepam (2.0%). 8.8% of all elderly persons received the same PIM drug four or more times in 2007.

CONCLUSION

These data show that PIM were frequently prescribed to elderly persons in Germany before the PRISCUS list was published. Medications on the PRISCUS list are not necessarily absolutely contraindicated, and this study contained no information about the individual risk/benefit analyses that may have been carried out before these drugs were prescribed; thus, no conclusion can be drawn about the prevalence of inappropriate prescribing. Further research is needed to validate the PRISCUS list, which was generated by expert consensus, as a basis for therapeutic guidelines in geriatric medicine.

Potentially inappropriate medication use in Indian elderly: comparison of Beers' criteria and Screening Tool of Older Persons' potentially inappropriate Prescriptions

AIM

To compare Beers' criteria (BC) and Screening Tool of Older Persons' potentially inappropriate Prescriptions (STOPP) for prevalence, specificity, sensitivity and predictors for potentially inappropriate medication (PIM) use.

METHODS

Patients aged ≥ 60 years from medicine wards of a tertiary care hospital were included. Comparisons between BC and STOPP were made using Pearson's χ(2) -test for categorical variables and Mann-Whitney U-test for continuous variables. Specificity and sensitivity were assessed by using 2 × 2 contingency table. Bivariate analysis and subsequent multivariate logistic regression was used to identify the predictors of PIM use.

RESULTS

In the 540 patients included, prevalence of PIM use as per BC and STOPP was 24.6% and 13.3%, respectively. Sensitivity and specificity of BC in detecting PIM was 0.65 and 0.53, respectively. Considering the diagnoses/conditions, sensitivity and specificity of BC was 0.12 and 0.48, respectively, whereas independent of diagnoses/conditions, corresponding values were 0.75 and 0.54. PIM as per BC and STOPP accounted for 11 and 6 adverse drug reactions (ADR), respectively. Medications not listed in BC or STOPP were more likely to be associated with ADR. Multiple diseases (≥ 4) and use of more drugs during hospital stay (10-14) predicted PIM use as per BC, whereas age (60-74 years) predicted PIM use as per STOPP.

CONCLUSION

Overall, BC is useful in the detection of PIM use independent of diagnoses/conditions, whereas STOPP is useful in detection of PIM use considering the diagnoses/conditions. There is a need for consensus on using the tool for detection of PIM use in Indian elderly.

Polypharmacy and food-drug interactions among older persons: a review

Polypharmacy is generally defined as the use of 5 or more prescription medications on a regular basis. The average number of prescribed and over-the-counter medications used by community-dwelling older adults per day in the United States is 6 medications, and the number used by institutionalized older persons is 9 medications. Almost all medications affect nutriture, either directly or indirectly, and nutriture affects drug disposition and effect. This review will highlight the issues surrounding polypharmacy, food-drug interactions, and the consequences of these interactions for the older adult.

Multiple diseases and polypharmacy in the elderly: challenges for the internist of the third millennium

The pattern of patients admitted to internal medicine wards has dramatically changed in the last 20-30 years. Elderly people are now the most rapidly growing proportion of the patient population in the majority of Western countries, and aging seldom comes alone, often being accompanied by chronic diseases, comorbidity, disability, frailty, and social isolation. Multiple diseases and multimorbidity inevitably lead to the use of multiple drugs, a condition known as polypharmacy. Over the last 20-30 years, problems related to aging, multimorbidity, and polypharmacy have become a prominent issue in global healthcare. This review discusses how internists might tackle these new challenges of the aging population. They are called to play a primary role in promoting a new, integrated, and comprehensive approach to the care of elderly people, which should incorporate age-related issues into routine clinical practice and decisions. The development of new approaches in the frame of undergraduate and postgraduate training and of clinical research is essential to improve and implement suitable strategies meant to evaluate and manage frail elderly patients with chronic diseases, comorbidity, and polypharmacy. Journal of Comorbidity 2011;1:28-44.

Benzodiazepine use in Belgian nursing homes: a closer look into indications and dosages

AIM

(1) To describe the prevalence of benzodiazepine use in Belgian nursing homes, with specific attention to indications and dosages. (2) To compare actual and recommended dosages of benzodiazepines for anxiety and insomnia. (3) To explore the risk profile for chronic benzodiazepine use in institutionalised older adults.

METHODS

Medication charts of 1,730 residents from 76 nursing homes in Belgium were collected and analysed, using the ATC classification. Drug name, indication and daily dosage were recorded. From authoritative international sources, we extracted for each drug and each indication a daily dosage recommended not to be exceeded in older adults for comparison with observed actual dosages.

RESULTS

Among the chronic benzodiazepine or z-drug (BZD/Z) users (50% of the residents), the leading indication was 'insomnia' (59% of the users) followed by 'anxiety' (17%) and 'unrest' (10%). In the chronic prescriptions of BZD/Zs indicated for insomnia, the actual daily dose exceeded the geriatric upper limit in 95% of lormetazepam prescriptions, 82% of zolpidem, 78% of zopiclone and 35% of lorazepam prescriptions. For anxiety, daily doses also exceeded the limit but not to the same extent. Multivariate analysis showed BZD/Z use was positively associated with pain (OR 1.58, 95% CI 1.27-1.97), constipation (OR 1.43, 95% CI 1.16-1.76) and depression (OR 1.68, 95% CI 1.35-2.08). Residents with dementia were less likely to receive a BZD/Z (OR 0.60, 95% CI 0.48-0.74).

CONCLUSION

Efforts to reduce the use of BZD/Zs in nursing homes should concentrate on insomnia, with interventions aimed at reducing too high prevalence of chronic use and too high daily dosages in this indication.

Prescribing for older adults

Pharmacotherapy of the elderly is very complex due to age-related physiologic changes, multiple comorbidities, multiple medications (prescription, over-the counter, and herbal), and multiple providers (prescribers and pharmacies). Age-related physiologic changes and disease-related changes in organ function affect drug handling (pharmacokinetics) and response (pharmacodynamics). In addition, patients' cognitive impairment, functional difficulties, as well as caregiver issues play a large role in errors and compliance. Many older adults have several chronic conditions, and they stand to benefit the most from best practice guidelines. However, they are also at risk of toxicity given our increasingly complex pharmacopoeia and potential adverse effects that can cause morbidity and mortality. It is imperative that physicians learn how to minimize side effects and interactions. Potentially inappropriate medications (medications that pose more risk than benefit to the patient) are among the most important causes of adverse drug reactions, independent of the number of medications and other confounding factors. Many of these adverse drug reactions could be predicted from the known pharmacology of the drug and therefore could be potentially avoidable. To prescribe appropriately, we need to consider not only the pharmacological properties of the drugs, but also clinical, epidemiological, social, cultural, and economic factors. Elders' adherence to prescribed medications is also complex and depends on medical, personal, and economic factors; cognitive status; and relationship with the physician. Detection of nonadherence is a necessary prerequisite for adequate treatment, and patient education is a cornerstone in achieving medication adherence. Finally, appropriate prescribing should include a consideration of life expectancy and goals of care.

Potentially inappropriate medication in geriatric patients: the Austrian consensus panel list

BACKGROUND

The practice of inappropriate medication and drug prescription is a major risk factor for adverse drug reactions in geriatric patients and increases the individual, as well as overall, rates of hospital admissions, resulting in increased health care expenditures. A consensus-based list of drugs, generally to be avoided in geriatric patients, is a practical tool to possibly improve the quality of prescribing.

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to develop a consensus-based list of potentially inappropriate medications (PIM) for geriatric patients in Austria. Local market characteristics and documented prescribing regimens were considered in detail.

METHODS

A two-round Delphi process involving eight experts in the field of geriatric medicine was undertaken to create a list of potentially inappropriate medications. Using a 5-point Likert scale (from strong agreement to strong disagreement), mean ratings from the experts were evaluated for each drug selected in the first round. The participants were first asked to comment on the potential inappropriateness of a preliminary list of drugs, and to propose alternate substances missing in the previous questionnaire for a second rating process. All drugs whose upper limit of the 95% CI was less than 3.0 were classified as potentially inappropriate. Drugs with a 95% CI enclosing 3.0 entered a second rating by the experts, in addition to other substances suggested during the first questionnaire. Drugs in the second rating were evaluated in comparable fashion to the first one. The final list was synthesized from the results in both rounds.

RESULTS

Out of a preliminary list of 102 drugs, 61 drugs (59.2%) were classified as potentially inappropriate for geriatric persons in the first Delphi- round. In the second rating, six drugs that were reevaluated, and six drugs proposed additionally, were rated as potentially inappropriate. The final list contains 73 drugs to be avoided in older patients because of an unfavorable benefit/risk profile and/or unproven effectiveness. The list also contains suggestions for therapeutic alternatives and information about pharmacological and pharmacokinetic characteristics of all drugs judged as potentially inappropriate.

CONCLUSION

The current Austrian list of potentially inappropriate medications may be a helpful tool for clinicians to increase the quality of prescribing in older patients. Like all explicit lists previously published, its validity needs to be proven in validation studies.

Criteria for drug selection in frail elderly persons

BACKGROUND

Elderly patients with multiple morbidities and polypharmacy are at an increased risk of adverse drug events (ADEs). Appropriate prescribing, preserving the balance between drug effectiveness and safety, and treatment adherence may prevent these ADEs. In this study, we investigated which drug properties, such as effectiveness, safety, clinical experience and convenience, are relevant to the choice of medicine most appropriate for frail elderly patients.

OBJECTIVES

The primary aim of this study was to develop a set of criteria to assist in the selection of the most appropriate drug within a drug class for the treatment of frail elderly patients. A secondary goal was to test the usefulness of the set of criteria in the prescription of antipsychotics for delirium and behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD).

METHODS

Thirty-one criteria potentially relevant to the choice of appropriate drugs for frail elderly patients were selected on the basis of a literature search in MEDLINE (1966-2008), EMBASE (1947-2008) and the Cochrane Library (1993-2008). This list was reviewed by 46 experts (24 physicians, 22 pharmacists), who scored each item for relevance in clinical practice on a scale from 1 to 10 (where 1 is not important and 10 is very important). By consensus, the authors selected the most relevant criteria for the final set of criteria. The usefulness of the final set of criteria was assessed with regard to the prescription of antipsychotics for delirium and BPSD.

RESULTS

The final set of 23 items consisted of 3 items on effectiveness, 14 on safety, including pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic criteria, 3 on clinical experience and 3 on convenience. Assessment using these criteria of the appropriateness of antipsychotics prescribed for delirium and BPSD revealed that certain drugs should be prescribed with caution to patients with Parkinson's disease and Lewy body dementia.

CONCLUSIONS

The criteria identified in this study, selected on the basis of a literature review and clinical expert opinion, represent a promising approach for determining the appropriateness of a drug for use in frail elderly individuals relative to alternative drugs for the same indication or from the same class.

Application of a prescribing indicators tool to assist in identifying drug-related problems in a cohort of older Australians

Objective

Drug-related problems (DRPs) are common in older people, resulting in a disproportionate number of serious medication adverse events. Pharmacist-led interventions have been shown to be effective in identifying and reducing DRPs such as medication interactions, omission of recommended medications and use of ineffective medications. In 2008 we proposed a prescribing indicators tool to assist in identifying DRPs as part of the Australian medication review process. The objective was to apply the proposed prescribing indicators tool to a cohort of older Australians, to assess its use in detecting potential DRPs.

Methods

The prescribing indicators tool was applied in a cross-sectional observational study to 126 older (aged ≥65 years) English-speaking Australians taking five or more medications, as they were being discharged from a small private hospital into the community. Indicators were unmet when prescribing did not adhere to indicator tool guidelines.

Key findings

We found a high incidence of under-treatment, and use of inappropriate medications. There were on average 18 applicable indicators per patient, with each patient having on average seven unmet indicators.

Conclusion

The use of a prescribing indicators tool for commonly used medications and common medical conditions in older Australians may contribute to the efficient identification of DRPs.

Potentially inappropriate medications in geriatric outpatients with polypharmacy: application of six sets of published explicit criteria

AIM

Our aim was to compare the practicability of six different potentially inappropriate medication (PIM) criteria in geriatric outpatients with polypharmacy.

METHODS

We analysed baseline data from the Medication Safety Review Clinic in Taiwanese Elders (MSRC-Taiwan) study. The prevalence and correlates of PIMs were determined on the basis of criteria developed in the USA, Canada, France, Norway, Ireland and Thailand. The percentage of PIMs considered as drug-related problems and the problem-solving rate are reported.

RESULTS

In the 193 participants, the prevalence of PIM varied from 24 to 73%. Application of the criteria revealed that a high number of chronic medications was a common risk factor for having at least one PIM. Of the 1713 medications reviewed, 5.6-14.8% were considered PIMs. Only 30-40% of the identified PIMs were reported as drug-related problems by the MSRC team experts. Criteria with a higher number of statements and a higher percentage of local market/institution drug availability tended to detect more PIMs.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of PIM varied significantly when different criteria were applied. Caution should be exercised in applying PIM criteria developed in other regions when medication availability in the local market is limited.