251
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Cimica V, Galarza JM. Adjuvant formulations for virus-like particle (VLP) based vaccines. Clin Immunol 2017; 183:99-108. [PMID: 28780375 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2017.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Revised: 06/11/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The development of virus-like particle (VLP) technology has had an enormous impact on modern vaccinology. In order to optimize the efficacy and safety of VLP-based vaccines, adjuvants are included in most vaccine formulations. To date, most licensed VLP-based vaccines utilize the classic aluminum adjuvant compositions. Certain challenging pathogens and weak immune responder subjects may require further optimization of the adjuvant formulation to maximize the magnitude and duration of the protective immunity. Indeed, novel classes of adjuvants such as liposomes, agonists of pathogen recognition receptors, polymeric particles, emulsions, cytokines and bacterial toxins, can be used to further improve the immunostimulatory activity of a VLP-based vaccine. This review describes the current advances in adjuvant technology for VLP-based vaccines directed at viral diseases, and discusses the basic principles for designing adjuvant formulations for enhancing the vaccine immunogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Velasco Cimica
- TechnoVax, Inc., 765 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY 10591, United States
| | - Jose M Galarza
- TechnoVax, Inc., 765 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY 10591, United States.
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252
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Kim GL, Seon SH, Rhee DK. Pneumonia and Streptococcus pneumoniae vaccine. Arch Pharm Res 2017; 40:885-893. [PMID: 28735461 PMCID: PMC7090487 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-017-0933-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Pneumonia is an inflammatory disease of the lung, responsible for high morbidity and mortality worldwide. It is caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or other microorganisms. Streptococcus pneumoniae, a gram-positive bacterium with over 90 serotypes, is the most common causative agent. Moreover, comorbid factors including heart failure, renal disease, and pulmonary disease could increase the risk of pneumococcal pneumonia. Since the advent of the pneumococcal vaccine in the 1980s, the incidence of pneumonia has decreased significantly. However, current vaccines confer only limited protection against serotypes included in the vaccine. Thus, to overcome this limitation, new types of pneumococcal vaccines have been sought and under clinical trials. In this review, we discuss pneumonia and summarize the various types of pneumococcal vaccines in progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyu-Lee Kim
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 440-746, South Korea
| | - Seung-Han Seon
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 440-746, South Korea
| | - Dong-Kwon Rhee
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, 440-746, South Korea.
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253
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Lokugamage N, Ikegami T. Genetic stability of Rift Valley fever virus MP-12 vaccine during serial passages in culture cells. NPJ Vaccines 2017; 2:20. [PMID: 29167748 PMCID: PMC5627234 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-017-0021-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a mosquito-borne zoonotic disease endemic to Africa which affects both ruminants and humans. RVF causes serious damage to the livestock industry and is also a threat to public health. The Rift Valley fever virus has a segmented negative-stranded RNA genome consisting of Large (L)-, Medium (M)-, and Small (S)-segments. The live-attenuated MP-12 vaccine is immunogenic in livestock and humans, and is conditionally licensed for veterinary use in the U.S. The MP-12 strain encodes 23 mutations (nine amino acid substitutions) and is attenuated through a combination of mutations in the L-, M-, and S-segments. Among them, the M-U795C, M-A3564G, and L-G3104A mutations contribute to viral attenuation through the L- and M-segments. The M-U795C, M-A3564G, L-U533C, and L-G3750A mutations are also independently responsible for temperature-sensitive (ts) phenotype. We hypothesized that a serial passage of the MP-12 vaccine in culture cells causes reversions of the MP-12 genome. The MP-12 vaccine and recombinant rMP12-ΔNSs16/198 were serially passaged 25 times. Droplet digital PCR analysis revealed that the reversion occurred at L-G3750A during passages of MP-12 in Vero or MRC-5 cells. The reversion also occurred at M-A3564G and L-U533C of rMP12-ΔNSs16/198 in Vero cells. Reversion mutations were not found in MP-12 or the variant, rMP12-TOSNSs, in the brains of mice with encephalitis. This study characterized genetic stability of the MP-12 vaccine and the potential risk of reversion mutation at the L-G3750A ts mutation after excessive viral passages in culture cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nandadeva Lokugamage
- Department of Pathology, The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555 USA
| | - Tetsuro Ikegami
- Department of Pathology, The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555 USA
- The Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555 USA
- The Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555 USA
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254
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255
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Zauberman A, Vagima Y, Tidhar A, Aftalion M, Gur D, Rotem S, Chitlaru T, Levy Y, Mamroud E. Host Iron Nutritional Immunity Induced by a Live Yersinia pestis Vaccine Strain Is Associated with Immediate Protection against Plague. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:277. [PMID: 28680860 PMCID: PMC5478729 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Prompt and effective elicitation of protective immunity is highly relevant for cases of rapidly deteriorating fatal diseases, such as plague, which is caused by Yersinia pestis. Here, we assessed the potential of a live vaccine to induce rapid protection against this infection. We demonstrated that the Y. pestis EV76 live vaccine protected mice against an immediate lethal challenge, limiting the multiplication of the virulent pathogen and its dissemination into circulation. Ex vivo analysis of Y. pestis growth in serum derived from EV76-immunized mice revealed that an antibacterial activity was produced rapidly. This activity was mediated by the host heme- and iron-binding proteins hemopexin and transferrin, and it occurred in strong correlation with the kinetics of hemopexin induction in vivo. We suggest a new concept in which a live vaccine is capable of rapidly inducing iron nutritional immunity, thus limiting the propagation of pathogens. This concept could be exploited to design novel therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayelet Zauberman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Israel Institute for Biological ResearchNess-Ziona, Israel
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Emanuelle Mamroud
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Israel Institute for Biological ResearchNess-Ziona, Israel
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256
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Kitamoto T, Takai-Todaka R, Kato A, Kanamori K, Takagi H, Yoshida K, Katayama K, Nakanishi A. Viral Population Changes during Murine Norovirus Propagation in RAW 264.7 Cells. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1091. [PMID: 28663743 PMCID: PMC5471328 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Laboratory adaptation of viruses is an essential technique for basic virology research, including the generation of attenuated vaccine strains, although the principles of cell adaptation remain largely unknown. Deep sequencing of murine norovirus (MuNoV) S7 during serial passages in RAW264.7 cells showed that the frequencies of viral variants were altered more dynamically than previously reported. Serial passages of the virus following two different multiplicity of infections gave rise to distinct haplotypes, implying that multiple cell-adaptable sequences were present in the founder population. Nucleotide variants lost during passage were assembled into a viral genome representative of that prior to cell adaptation, which was unable to generate viral particles upon infection in cultured cells. In addition, presence of the reconstructed genome interfered with production of infectious particles from viruses that were fully adapted to in vitro culture. Although the key nucleotide changes dictating cell adaptation of MuNoV S7 viral infection are yet to be elucidated, our results revealed the elaborate interplay among selected sequences of viral variants better adapted to propagation in cell culture. Such knowledge will be instrumental in understanding the processes necessary for the laboratory adaptation of viruses, especially to those without relevant cell culture systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Kitamoto
- Laboratory of Radiation Safety, National Center for Geriatrics and GerontologyObu, Japan
| | - Reiko Takai-Todaka
- Laboratory of Gastroenteritis Viruses, Virology II, National Institute for Infectious DiseasesMusashimurayama, Japan
| | - Akiko Kato
- Laboratory of Radiation Safety, National Center for Geriatrics and GerontologyObu, Japan
| | - Kumiko Kanamori
- Section of Gene Therapy, Department of Aging Intervention, National Center for Geriatrics and GerontologyObu, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Takagi
- Division of Biosafety Control and Research, National Institute for Infectious DiseasesTokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Yoshida
- Section of Gene Therapy, Department of Aging Intervention, National Center for Geriatrics and GerontologyObu, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Katayama
- Laboratory of Gastroenteritis Viruses, Virology II, National Institute for Infectious DiseasesMusashimurayama, Japan.,Laboratory of Viral Infection I, Graduate School of Infection Control Sciences, Kitasato Institute for Life Sciences, Kitasato UniversityTokyo, Japan
| | - Akira Nakanishi
- Laboratory of Radiation Safety, National Center for Geriatrics and GerontologyObu, Japan.,Section of Gene Therapy, Department of Aging Intervention, National Center for Geriatrics and GerontologyObu, Japan
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257
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Liu Y, Xu CF, Iqbal S, Yang XZ, Wang J. Responsive Nanocarriers as an Emerging Platform for Cascaded Delivery of Nucleic Acids to Cancer. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2017; 115:98-114. [PMID: 28396204 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2017.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 03/22/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cascades of systemic and intracellular obstacles, including low stability in blood, little tumor accumulation, weak tumor penetration, poor cellular uptake, inefficient endosomal escape and deficient disassembly in the cytoplasm, must be overcome in order to deliver nucleic acid drugs for cancer therapy. Nanocarriers that are sensitive to a variety of physiological stimuli, such as pH, redox status, and cell enzymes, are substantially changing the landscape of nucleic acid drug delivery by helping to overcome cascaded systemic and intracellular barriers. This review discusses nucleic acid-based therapeutics, systemic and intracellular barriers to efficient nucleic acid delivery, and nanocarriers responsive to extracellular and intracellular biological stimuli to overcome individual barriers. In particular, responsive nanocarriers for the cascaded delivery of nucleic acids in vivo are highlighted. Developing novel cascaded nanocarriers that transform their physicochemical properties in response to various stimuli in a timely and spatially controlled manner for nucleic acid drug delivery holds great potential for translating the promise of nucleic acid drugs and achieving clinically successful cancer therapy.
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258
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Pardi N, Hogan MJ, Pelc RS, Muramatsu H, Andersen H, DeMaso CR, Dowd KA, Sutherland LL, Scearce RM, Parks R, Wagner W, Granados A, Greenhouse J, Walker M, Willis E, Yu JS, McGee CE, Sempowski GD, Mui BL, Tam YK, Huang YJ, Vanlandingham D, Holmes VM, Balachandran H, Sahu S, Lifton M, Higgs S, Hensley SE, Madden TD, Hope MJ, Karikó K, Santra S, Graham BS, Lewis MG, Pierson TC, Haynes BF, Weissman D. Zika virus protection by a single low-dose nucleoside-modified mRNA vaccination. Nature 2017; 543:248-251. [PMID: 28151488 PMCID: PMC5344708 DOI: 10.1038/nature21428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 607] [Impact Index Per Article: 86.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) has recently emerged as a pandemic associated with severe neuropathology in newborns and adults. There are no ZIKV-specific treatments or preventatives. Therefore, the development of a safe and effective vaccine is a high priority. Messenger RNA (mRNA) has emerged as a versatile and highly effective platform to deliver vaccine antigens and therapeutic proteins. Here we demonstrate that a single low-dose intradermal immunization with lipid-nanoparticle-encapsulated nucleoside-modified mRNA (mRNA-LNP) encoding the pre-membrane and envelope glycoproteins of a strain from the ZIKV outbreak in 2013 elicited potent and durable neutralizing antibody responses in mice and non-human primates. Immunization with 30 μg of nucleoside-modified ZIKV mRNA-LNP protected mice against ZIKV challenges at 2 weeks or 5 months after vaccination, and a single dose of 50 μg was sufficient to protect non-human primates against a challenge at 5 weeks after vaccination. These data demonstrate that nucleoside-modified mRNA-LNP elicits rapid and durable protective immunity and therefore represents a new and promising vaccine candidate for the global fight against ZIKV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert Pardi
- Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
| | - Michael J Hogan
- Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
| | - Rebecca S Pelc
- Viral Pathogenesis Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Hiromi Muramatsu
- Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
| | | | - Christina R DeMaso
- Viral Pathogenesis Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Kimberly A Dowd
- Viral Pathogenesis Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Laura L Sutherland
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
| | - Richard M Scearce
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
| | - Robert Parks
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Elinor Willis
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
| | - Jae-Sung Yu
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
| | - Charles E McGee
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
| | - Gregory D Sempowski
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
| | - Barbara L Mui
- Acuitas Therapeutics, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Ying K Tam
- Acuitas Therapeutics, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Yan-Jang Huang
- Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and the Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
| | - Dana Vanlandingham
- Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and the Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
| | - Veronica M Holmes
- Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
| | - Harikrishnan Balachandran
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215 USA
| | - Sujata Sahu
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215 USA
| | - Michelle Lifton
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215 USA
| | - Stephen Higgs
- Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and the Biosecurity Research Institute, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
| | - Scott E Hensley
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
| | - Thomas D Madden
- Acuitas Therapeutics, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Michael J Hope
- Acuitas Therapeutics, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Katalin Karikó
- BioNTech RNA Pharmaceuticals, An der Goldgrube 12, 55131 Mainz, Germany
| | - Sampa Santra
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215 USA
| | - Barney S Graham
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Mark G Lewis
- Bioqual Inc., Rockville, Maryland 20850-3220, USA
| | - Theodore C Pierson
- Viral Pathogenesis Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | - Barton F Haynes
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA
| | - Drew Weissman
- Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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259
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260
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Toward Mucosal DNA Delivery: Structural Modularity in Vaccine Platform Design. MICRO AND NANOTECHNOLOGY IN VACCINE DEVELOPMENT 2017. [PMCID: PMC7152392 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-39981-4.00016-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus is a small, nonenveloped RNA virus that is feco-orally transmitted and causes viral hepatitis in humans. A virus-like particle (VLP) expressed and purified from insect cells shares several properties with the virion but can be manipulated quite extensively through genetic engineering or chemical modification. This has exciting implications for exploiting the VLP as a nanocarrier for foreign epitopes or encapsulated deliverables. By exhaustively studying the structure of the virus, we have been successful in designing and synthesizing chimerized VLPs that either carry foreign epitopes, are capable of encapsulating foreign DNA, or both. Preliminary studies show that these particles provide specific and strong immune responses in mice when orally delivered. To appreciate the full potential of HEV VLPs, we have highlighted various properties of the virus with a strong focus on the VLP structure and the key features that make it suitable for oral delivery.
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261
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Varghese L, Curran D, Bunge E, Vroling H, van Kessel F, Guignard A, Casabona G, Olivieri A. Contraindication of live vaccines in immunocompromised patients: an estimate of the number of affected people in the USA and the UK. Public Health 2016; 142:46-49. [PMID: 28057197 DOI: 10.1016/j.puhe.2016.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Revised: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 10/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - E Bunge
- Pallas Health Research and Consultancy, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - H Vroling
- Pallas Health Research and Consultancy, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - F van Kessel
- Pallas Health Research and Consultancy, Rotterdam, Netherlands
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262
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Attenuated Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus with Rearranged Gene Order as Potential Vaccine. J Virol 2016; 90:10857-10866. [PMID: 27681130 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01024-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The genome of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV), a salmonid novirhabdovirus, has been engineered to modify the gene order and to evaluate the impact on a possible attenuation of the virus in vitro and in vivo By reverse genetics, eight recombinant IHNVs (rIHNVs), termed NxGy according to the respective positions of the nucleoprotein (N) and glycoprotein (G) genes along the genome, have been recovered. All rIHNVs have been fully characterized in vitro for their cytopathic effects, kinetics of replication, and profiles of viral gene transcription. These rIHNVs are stable through up to 10 passages in cell culture. Following bath immersion administration of the various rIHNVs to juvenile trout, some of the rIHNVs were clearly attenuated (N2G3, N2G4, N3G4, and N4G1). The position of the N gene seems to be one of the most critical features correlated to the level of viral attenuation. The induced immune response potential in fish was evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot assay (ELISPOT) and seroneutralization assays. The recombinant virus N2G3 induced a strong antibody response in immunized fish and conferred 86% of protection against wild-type IHNV challenge in trout, thus representing a promising starting point for the development of a live attenuated vaccine candidate. IMPORTANCE In Europe, no vaccines are available against infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV), one of the major economic threats in fish aquaculture. Live attenuated vaccines are conditioned by a sensible balance between attenuation and pathogenicity. Moreover, nonsegmented negative-strain RNA viruses (NNSV) are subject to a transcription gradient dictated by the order of the genes in their genomes. With the perspective of developing a vaccine against IHNV, we engineered various recombinant IHNVs with reordered genomes in order to artificially attenuate the virus. Our results validate the gene rearrangement approach as a potent and stable attenuation strategy for fish novirhabdovirus and open a new perspective for design of vaccines against other NNSV.
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263
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Prescott J, Feldmann H, Safronetz D. Amending Koch's postulates for viral disease: When "growth in pure culture" leads to a loss of virulence. Antiviral Res 2016; 137:1-5. [PMID: 27832942 PMCID: PMC5182102 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2016.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
It is a common laboratory practice to propagate viruses in cell culture. While convenient, these methodologies often result in unintentional genetic alterations, which have led to adaptation and even attenuation in animal models of disease. An example is the attenuation of hantaviruses (family: Bunyaviridae, genus: Hantavirus) when cultured in vitro. In this case, viruses propagated in the natural reservoir species cause disease in nonhuman primates that closely mimics the human disease, but passaging in cell culture attenuates these viruses to the extent that do not cause any measurable disease in nonhuman primates. As efforts to develop animal models progress, it will be important to take into account the influences that culture in vitro may have on the virulence of viruses. In this review we discuss this phenomenon in the context of past and recent examples in the published literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Prescott
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 South 4th Street, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA.
| | - Heinz Feldmann
- Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 South 4th Street, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA; Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, 745 Bannatyne Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada
| | - David Safronetz
- Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada; Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, 745 Bannatyne Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada.
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264
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Jorritsma SHT, Gowans EJ, Grubor-Bauk B, Wijesundara DK. Delivery methods to increase cellular uptake and immunogenicity of DNA vaccines. Vaccine 2016; 34:5488-5494. [PMID: 27742218 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.09.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
DNA vaccines are ideal candidates for global vaccination purposes because they are inexpensive and easy to manufacture on a large scale such that even people living in low-income countries can benefit from vaccination. However, the potential of DNA vaccines has not been realized owing mainly to the poor cellular uptake of DNA in vivo resulting in the poor immunogenicity of DNA vaccines. In this review, we discuss the benefits and shortcomings of several promising and innovative non-biological methods of DNA delivery that can be used to increase cellular delivery and efficacy of DNA vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H T Jorritsma
- Virology Research Group, Discipline of Surgery, The Basil Hetzel Institute, The University of Adelaide, Australia
| | - E J Gowans
- Virology Research Group, Discipline of Surgery, The Basil Hetzel Institute, The University of Adelaide, Australia
| | - B Grubor-Bauk
- Virology Research Group, Discipline of Surgery, The Basil Hetzel Institute, The University of Adelaide, Australia
| | - D K Wijesundara
- Virology Research Group, Discipline of Surgery, The Basil Hetzel Institute, The University of Adelaide, Australia.
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265
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Pushko P, Lukashevich IS, Weaver SC, Tretyakova I. DNA-launched live-attenuated vaccines for biodefense applications. Expert Rev Vaccines 2016; 15:1223-34. [PMID: 27055100 PMCID: PMC5033646 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2016.1175943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A novel vaccine platform uses DNA immunization to launch live-attenuated virus vaccines in vivo. This technology has been applied for vaccine development against positive-strand RNA viruses with global public health impact including alphaviruses and flaviviruses. The DNA-launched vaccine represents the recombinant plasmid that encodes the full-length genomic RNA of live-attenuated virus downstream from a eukaryotic promoter. When administered in vivo, the genomic RNA of live-attenuated virus is transcribed. The RNA initiates limited replication of a genetically defined, live-attenuated vaccine virus in the tissues of the vaccine recipient, thereby inducing a protective immune response. This platform combines the strengths of reverse genetics, DNA immunization and the advantages of live-attenuated vaccines, resulting in a reduced chance of genetic reversions, increased safety, and improved immunization. With this vaccine technology, the field of DNA vaccines is expanded from those that express subunit antigens to include a novel type of DNA vaccines that launch live-attenuated viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Pushko
- Medigen, Inc. 8420 Gas House Pike Suite S, Frederick, MD 21701, USA
| | - Igor S. Lukashevich
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, Center for Predictive Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Louisville, 505 S Hancock St., Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Scott C. Weaver
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, Sealy Center for Vaccine Development and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, GNL, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Irina Tretyakova
- Medigen, Inc. 8420 Gas House Pike Suite S, Frederick, MD 21701, USA
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266
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Gutjahr A, Tiraby G, Perouzel E, Verrier B, Paul S. Triggering Intracellular Receptors for Vaccine Adjuvantation. Trends Immunol 2016; 37:573-587. [PMID: 27474233 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2016.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Immune adjuvants are components that stimulate, potentiate, or modulate the immune response to an antigen. They are key elements of vaccines in both the prophylactic and therapeutic domains. In the past decade substantial progress in our understanding of innate immunity has paved the way for the design of next-generation adjuvants that stimulate a wide range of receptors. Within the framework of vaccine adjuvant design, this review outlines the interest of targeting endosomal and intracellular receptors to enhance and guide the immune response. We present and compare the molecules as well as potential combinations which are currently in the spotlight. We emphasize how targeting the appropriate receptor can direct immunity towards the appropriate response, such as a cytotoxic or mucosal response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Gutjahr
- Laboratoire de Biologie Tissulaire et d'Ingénierie Thérapeutique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5305, Université Lyon 1, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Biologie et Chimie des Protéines (IBCP)-Lyon, France; InvivoGen, Toulouse, France; Groupe Immunité des Muqueuses et Agents Pathogènes, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) Centre d'Investigation Clinique 1408 Vaccinologie, Faculté de Médecine de Saint-Etienne-Saint-Etienne, France
| | | | | | - Bernard Verrier
- Laboratoire de Biologie Tissulaire et d'Ingénierie Thérapeutique, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5305, Université Lyon 1, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Biologie et Chimie des Protéines (IBCP)-Lyon, France
| | - Stéphane Paul
- Groupe Immunité des Muqueuses et Agents Pathogènes, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) Centre d'Investigation Clinique 1408 Vaccinologie, Faculté de Médecine de Saint-Etienne-Saint-Etienne, France.
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267
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Zahoor MA, Khurshid M, Qureshi R, Naz A, Shahid M. Cell culture-based viral vaccines: current status and future prospects. Future Virol 2016. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2016-0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Cell culture-based viral vaccines are used globally to immunize humans against infections. The cell culture is continuous process of developing substrates for the safe production of viral vaccines. However, increased global demand and strict safety rules for novel vaccines to control and eradicate viral diseases have forced researchers and manufacturers toward cell culture-based vaccines. The choice of cell substrate is a critical step that cannot be generalized for every vaccine formulation, therefore, manufacturers intend to optimize the required processes for particular applications. The recently established cell lines, innovative bioreactor concepts and cultivation schemes are necessary to increase the potential of vaccine production. In this review, we have focused on current cell culture-based viral vaccines and their future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mohsin Khurshid
- Department of Microbiology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
- College of Allied Health Professionals, Directorate of Medical Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Rabia Qureshi
- Department of Microbiology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Aneeqa Naz
- Department of Microbiology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Shahid
- Department of Bioinformatics & Biotechnology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
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268
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Oliveira ERA, de Alencastro RB, Horta BAC. The mechanism by which P250L mutation impairs flavivirus-NS1 dimerization: an investigation based on molecular dynamics simulations. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL: EBJ 2016; 45:573-80. [DOI: 10.1007/s00249-016-1147-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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269
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Wang Z, Qin C, Hu J, Guo X, Yin J. Recent advances in synthetic carbohydrate-based human immunodeficiency virus vaccines. Virol Sin 2016; 31:110-7. [PMID: 26992403 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-015-3691-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
An effective vaccine for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is urgently needed to prevent HIV infection and progression to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). As glycosylation of viral proteins becomes better understood, carbohydrate-based antiviral vaccines against special viruses have attracted much attention. Significant efforts in carbohydrate synthesis and immunogenicity research have resulted in the development of multiple carbohydrate-based HIV vaccines. This review summarizes recent advances in synthetic carbohydrate-based vaccines design strategies and the applications of these vaccines in the prevention of HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
| | - Chunjun Qin
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
| | - Jing Hu
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China.,Wuxi Medical School, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
| | - Xiaoqiang Guo
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China
| | - Jian Yin
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, China.
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270
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Kaufmann JK, Flechtner JB. Evolution of rational vaccine designs for genital herpes immunotherapy. Curr Opin Virol 2016; 17:80-86. [PMID: 26896782 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2016.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Revised: 01/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Immunotherapeutic vaccines have emerged as a novel treatment modality for genital herpes, a sexually transmitted disease mainly caused by herpes simplex virus type 2. The approaches to identify potential vaccine antigens have evolved from classic virus attenuation and characterization of antibody and T cell responses in exposed, but seronegative individuals, to systematic screens for novel T cell antigens. Combined with implementation of novel vaccine concepts revolving around immune evasion and local recruitment of immune effectors, the development of a safe and effective therapeutic vaccine is within reach. Here, we describe the vaccine approaches that currently show promise at clinical and pre-clinical stages and link them to the evolving scientific strategies that led to their identification.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jessica Baker Flechtner
- Genocea Biosciences Inc., Cambridge Discovery Park, 100 Acorn Park Drive, Cambridge, MA 02140, USA
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271
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Abstract
Vaccination is the most effective means of preventing and controlling viral infections. The eradication of smallpox and the significant progress made toward polio eradication are clear examples of the great impact of antiviral vaccines. However, viral infections remain a major public health threat and a significant cause of death. Most of the antiviral vaccines introduced over the past century were empirically developed. Poliomyelitis, measles, mumps, and rubella are examples of diseases that are now largely controlled thanks to these empirically developed vaccines. However, there is a growing list of viral pathogens against which effective vaccines are yet to be developed. Recent technological advances will potentially provide us with new platforms that could be harnessed to develop vaccines against emerging and reemerging viral pathogens.
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272
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Maple PAC. Application of Oral Fluid Assays in Support of Mumps, Rubella and Varicella Control Programs. Vaccines (Basel) 2015; 3:988-1003. [PMID: 26690230 PMCID: PMC4693228 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines3040988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Revised: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Detection of specific viral antibody or nucleic acid produced by infection or immunization, using oral fluid samples, offers increased potential for wider population uptake compared to blood sampling. This methodology is well established for the control of HIV and measles infections, but can also be applied to the control of other vaccine preventable infections, and this review describes the application of oral fluid assays in support of mumps, rubella and varicella national immunization programs. In England and Wales individuals with suspected mumps or rubella, based on clinical presentation, can have an oral fluid swab sample taken for case confirmation. Universal varicella immunization of children has led to a drastic reduction of chickenpox in those countries where it is used; however, in England and Wales such a policy has not been instigated. Consequently, in England and Wales most children have had chickenpox by age 10 years; however, small, but significant, numbers of adults remain susceptible. Targeted varicella zoster virus (VZV) immunization of susceptible adolescents offers the potential to reduce the pool of susceptible adults and oral fluid determination of VZV immunity in adolescents is a potential means of identifying susceptible individuals in need of VZV vaccination. The main application of oral fluid testing is in those circumstances where blood sampling is deemed not necessary, or is undesirable, and when the documented sensitivity and specificity of the oral fluid assay methodology to be used is considered sufficient for the purpose intended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter A C Maple
- East Yorkshire Microbiology, Innovation Centre, York Science Park, York YO10 5DG, UK.
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273
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Garcés-Sánchez M, Renales-Toboso M, Bóveda-García M, Díez-Domingo J. Vacuna triple vírica. Resurgimiento del sarampión en Europa. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2015; 33:673-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eimc.2015.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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274
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Knowlson S, Burlison J, Giles E, Fox H, Macadam AJ, Minor PD. New Strains Intended for the Production of Inactivated Polio Vaccine at Low-Containment After Eradication. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1005316. [PMID: 26720150 PMCID: PMC4699825 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Poliomyelitis has nearly been eradicated through the efforts of the World Health Organization's Global Eradication Initiative raising questions on containment of the virus after it has been eliminated in the wild. Most manufacture of inactivated polio vaccines currently requires the growth of large amounts of highly virulent poliovirus, and release from a production facility after eradication could be disastrous; WHO have therefore recommended the use of the attenuated Sabin strains for production as a safer option although it is recognised that they can revert to a transmissible paralytic form. We have exploited the understanding of the molecular virology of the Sabin vaccine strains to design viruses that are extremely genetically stable and hyperattenuated. The viruses are based on the type 3 Sabin vaccine strain and have been genetically modified in domain V of the 5' non-coding region by changing base pairs to produce a cassette into which capsid regions of other serotypes have been introduced. The viruses give satisfactory yields of antigenically and immunogenically correct viruses in culture, are without measurable neurovirulence and fail to infect non-human primates under conditions where the Sabin strains will do so.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Knowlson
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - John Burlison
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Elaine Giles
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Helen Fox
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J. Macadam
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Philip D. Minor
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
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275
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Hernández-Alonso P, Garijo R, Cuevas JM, Sanjuán R. Experimental evolution of an RNA virus in cells with innate immunity defects. Virus Evol 2015; 1:vev008. [PMID: 27774280 PMCID: PMC5014476 DOI: 10.1093/ve/vev008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental evolution studies have shown that RNA viruses respond rapidly to directional selection and thus can adapt efficiently to changes in host cell tropism, antiviral drugs, or other imposed selective pressures. However, the evolution of RNA viruses under relaxed selection has been less extensively explored. Here, we evolved vesicular stomatitis virus in mouse embryonic fibroblasts knocked-out for PKR, a protein with a central role in antiviral innate immunity. Vesicular stomatitis virus adapted to PKR-negative mouse embryonic fibroblasts in a gene-specific manner, since the evolved viruses exhibited little or no fitness improvement in PKR-positive cells. Full-length sequencing revealed the presence of multiple parallel nucleotide substitutions arising in independent evolution lines. However, site-directed mutagenesis showed that the effects of these substitutions were not PKR dependent. In contrast, we found evidence for sign epistasis, such that a given substitution which was positively selected was strongly deleterious when tested as a single mutation. Our results suggest that virus evolution in cells with specific innate immunity defects may drive viral specialization. However, this process is not deterministic at the molecular level, probably because the fixation of mutations which are tolerated under a relaxed selection regime is governed mainly by random genetic drift.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Hernández-Alonso
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva and Departament de Genètica, Universitat de València, Paterna 46980, Spain
| | - Raquel Garijo
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva and Departament de Genètica, Universitat de València, Paterna 46980, Spain
| | - José M Cuevas
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva and Departament de Genètica, Universitat de València, Paterna 46980, Spain
| | - Rafael Sanjuán
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva and Departament de Genètica, Universitat de València, Paterna 46980, Spain
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276
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Circelli L, Petrizzo A, Tagliamonte M, Tornesello ML, Buonaguro FM, Buonaguro L. Systems Biology Approach for Cancer Vaccine Development and Evaluation. Vaccines (Basel) 2015; 3:544-55. [PMID: 26350594 PMCID: PMC4586466 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines3030544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Revised: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 07/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic cancer vaccines do not hold promise yet as an effective anti-cancer treatment. Lack of efficacy or poor clinical outcomes are due to several antigenic and immunological aspects that need to be addressed in order to reverse such trends and significantly improve cancer vaccines’ efficacy. The newly developed high throughput technologies and computational tools are instrumental to this aim allowing the identification of more specific antigens and the comprehensive analysis of the innate and adaptive immunities. Here, we review the potentiality of systems biology in providing novel insights in the mechanisms of the action of vaccines to improve their design and effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Circelli
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Viral Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, "Fondazione Pascale" - IRCCS, Naples 80131, Italy.
| | - Annacarmen Petrizzo
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Viral Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, "Fondazione Pascale" - IRCCS, Naples 80131, Italy.
| | - Maria Tagliamonte
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Viral Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, "Fondazione Pascale" - IRCCS, Naples 80131, Italy.
| | - Maria Lina Tornesello
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Viral Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, "Fondazione Pascale" - IRCCS, Naples 80131, Italy.
| | - Franco M Buonaguro
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Viral Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, "Fondazione Pascale" - IRCCS, Naples 80131, Italy.
| | - Luigi Buonaguro
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Viral Oncology, Department of Experimental Oncology, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, "Fondazione Pascale" - IRCCS, Naples 80131, Italy.
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277
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia Häfner
- University of Copenhagen, BRIC Biotech Research & Innovation Centre, Lund Group, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark.
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