251
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Piironen A, Weckström M, Vähäsöyrinki M. Ultrasmall and customizable multichannel electrodes for extracellular recordings. J Neurophysiol 2011; 105:1416-21. [PMID: 21228307 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00790.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing demand exists for smaller multichannel electrodes that enable simultaneous recordings of many neurons in a noninvasive manner. We report a novel method for manufacturing ultrasmall carbon fiber electrodes with up to seven closely spaced recording sites. The electrodes were designed to minimize damage to neuronal circuitry and to be fully customizable in three dimensions so that their dimensions can be optimally matched to those of the targeted neuron population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arto Piironen
- Department of Physics, Biophysics and Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
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252
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Coull JT, Cheng RK, Meck WH. Neuroanatomical and neurochemical substrates of timing. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011; 36:3-25. [PMID: 20668434 PMCID: PMC3055517 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2010.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 520] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2010] [Revised: 06/29/2010] [Accepted: 06/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We all have a sense of time. Yet, there are no sensory receptors specifically dedicated for perceiving time. It is an almost uniquely intangible sensation: we cannot see time in the way that we see color, shape, or even location. So how is time represented in the brain? We explore the neural substrates of metrical representations of time such as duration estimation (explicit timing) or temporal expectation (implicit timing). Basal ganglia (BG), supplementary motor area, cerebellum, and prefrontal cortex have all been linked to the explicit estimation of duration. However, each region may have a functionally discrete role and will be differentially implicated depending upon task context. Among these, the dorsal striatum of the BG and, more specifically, its ascending nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway seems to be the most crucial of these regions, as shown by converging functional neuroimaging, neuropsychological, and psychopharmacological investigations in humans, as well as lesion and pharmacological studies in animals. Moreover, neuronal firing rates in both striatal and interconnected frontal areas vary as a function of duration, suggesting a neurophysiological mechanism for the representation of time in the brain, with the excitatory-inhibitory balance of interactions among distinct subtypes of striatal neuron serving to fine-tune temporal accuracy and precision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer T Coull
- Laboratoire de Neurobiologie de la Cognition, Pole 3C, Université de Provence and CNRS, Marseille, France.
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253
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Abstract
Neocortical neurons in vivo process each of their individual inputs in the context of ongoing synaptic background activity, produced by the thousands of presynaptic partners a typical neuron has. Previous work has shown that background activity affects multiple aspects of neuronal and network function. However, its effect on the induction of spike-timing dependent plasticity (STDP) is not clear. Here we report that injections of simulated background conductances (produced by a dynamic-clamp system) into pyramidal cells in rat brain slices selectively reduced the magnitude of timing-dependent synaptic potentiation while leaving the magnitude of timing-dependent synaptic depression unchanged. The conductance-dependent suppression also sharpened the STDP curve, with reliable synaptic potentiation induced only when EPSPs and action potentials (APs) were paired within 8 ms of each other. Dual somatic and dendritic patch recordings suggested that the deficit in synaptic potentiation arose from shunting of dendritic EPSPs and APs. Using a biophysically detailed computational model, we were not only able to replicate the conductance-dependent shunting of dendritic potentials, but show that synaptic background can truncate calcium dynamics within dendritic spines in a way that affects potentiation more strongly than depression. This conductance-dependent regulation of synaptic plasticity may constitute a novel homeostatic mechanism that can prevent the runaway synaptic potentiation to which Hebbian networks are vulnerable.
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254
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Arrenberg AB, Stainier DYR, Baier H, Huisken J. Optogenetic control of cardiac function. Science 2010; 330:971-4. [PMID: 21071670 DOI: 10.1126/science.1195929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 340] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The cardiac pacemaker controls the rhythmicity of heart contractions and can be substituted by a battery-operated device as a last resort. We created a genetically encoded, optically controlled pacemaker by expressing halorhodopsin and channelrhodopsin in zebrafish cardiomyocytes. Using patterned illumination in a selective plane illumination microscope, we located the pacemaker and simulated tachycardia, bradycardia, atrioventricular blocks, and cardiac arrest. The pacemaker converges to the sinoatrial region during development and comprises fewer than a dozen cells by the time the heart loops. Perturbation of the activity of these cells was entirely reversible, demonstrating the resilience of the endogenous pacemaker. Our studies combine optogenetics and light-sheet microscopy to reveal the emergence of organ function during development.
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255
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Cossart R. The maturation of cortical interneuron diversity: how multiple developmental journeys shape the emergence of proper network function. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2010; 21:160-8. [PMID: 21074988 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2010.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Revised: 10/04/2010] [Accepted: 10/21/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
If the classical functional attribute of cortical GABAergic interneurons is to mediate synaptic inhibition in the adult cortex, it is becoming evident that their major task is instead to shape the spatio-temporal dynamics of the network oscillations that support most brain functions. This complex function involves a division of labour between morpho-physiologically diverse interneuron subtypes. Both the central network function and the bewildering heterogeneity of the interneuron population are especially emphasized during cortical development: at early postnatal stages, a single GABAergic neuron can efficiently pace the activity of hundreds of other cells, whereas some interneuron subtypes are still poorly developed. Given the role of coherent activity in brain development, this confers to GABAergic interneurons a major role in the proper maturation of cortical networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa Cossart
- INMED, INSERM U901, Université de la Méditerranée, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, BP.13, 13273 Marseille Cedex 9, France.
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256
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Parker D. Neuronal network analyses: premises, promises and uncertainties. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2010; 365:2315-28. [PMID: 20603354 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal networks assemble the cellular components needed for sensory, motor and cognitive functions. Any rational intervention in the nervous system will thus require an understanding of network function. Obtaining this understanding is widely considered to be one of the major tasks facing neuroscience today. Network analyses have been performed for some years in relatively simple systems. In addition to the direct insights these systems have provided, they also illustrate some of the difficulties of understanding network function. Nevertheless, in more complex systems (including human), claims are made that the cellular bases of behaviour are, or will shortly be, understood. While the discussion is necessarily limited, this issue will examine these claims and highlight some traditional and novel aspects of network analyses and their difficulties. This introduction discusses the criteria that need to be satisfied for network understanding, and how they relate to traditional and novel approaches being applied to addressing network function.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Parker
- Department of Physiology, Development, and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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257
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Nowak VA, Pereira EAC, Green AL, Aziz TZ. Optogenetics – shining light on neurosurgical conditions. Br J Neurosurg 2010; 24:618-24. [DOI: 10.3109/02688697.2010.520764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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258
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Scanless two-photon excitation of channelrhodopsin-2. Nat Methods 2010; 7:848-54. [PMID: 20852649 DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.1505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 08/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Light-gated ion channels and pumps have made it possible to probe intact neural circuits by manipulating the activity of groups of genetically similar neurons. What is needed now is a method for precisely aiming the stimulating light at single neuronal processes, neurons or groups of neurons. We developed a method that combines generalized phase contrast with temporal focusing (TF-GPC) to shape two-photon excitation for this purpose. The illumination patterns are generated automatically from fluorescence images of neurons and shaped to cover the cell body or dendrites, or distributed groups of cells. The TF-GPC two-photon excitation patterns generated large photocurrents in Channelrhodopsin-2-expressing cultured cells and neurons and in mouse acute cortical slices. The amplitudes of the photocurrents can be precisely modulated by controlling the size and shape of the excitation volume and, thereby, be used to trigger single action potentials or trains of action potentials.
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259
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Tian B, Cohen-Karni T, Qing Q, Duan X, Xie P, Lieber CM. Three-dimensional, flexible nanoscale field-effect transistors as localized bioprobes. Science 2010; 329:830-4. [PMID: 20705858 DOI: 10.1126/science.1192033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 472] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Nanoelectronic devices offer substantial potential for interrogating biological systems, although nearly all work has focused on planar device designs. We have overcome this limitation through synthetic integration of a nanoscale field-effect transistor (nanoFET) device at the tip of an acute-angle kinked silicon nanowire, where nanoscale connections are made by the arms of the kinked nanostructure, and remote multilayer interconnects allow three-dimensional (3D) probe presentation. The acute-angle probe geometry was designed and synthesized by controlling cis versus trans crystal conformations between adjacent kinks, and the nanoFET was localized through modulation doping. 3D nanoFET probes exhibited conductance and sensitivity in aqueous solution, independent of large mechanical deflections, and demonstrated high pH sensitivity. Additionally, 3D nanoprobes modified with phospholipid bilayers can enter single cells to allow robust recording of intracellular potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bozhi Tian
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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260
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Bamann C, Nagel G, Bamberg E. Microbial rhodopsins in the spotlight. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2010; 20:610-6. [PMID: 20691581 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2010.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2010] [Accepted: 07/07/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of the light-gated cation channel Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) and the use of the rediscovered light-driven Cl-pump halorhodopsin (HR) as optogenetic tools--genetically encoded switches that enable neurons to be turned on or off with bursts of light--refines the functional study of neurons in larger networks. Cell-specific expression allows a fast optical scanning approach to determine neuronal crosstalk following plasticity at the single synapse level or long-range projections in locomotion and somatosensory networks. Both rhodopsins proved to work functionally and could evoke behavioral responses in lower model organisms, reinstall rudimentary visual perception in blind mice and were set in a biomedical context with the investigation of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Bamann
- Max-Planck-Institut für Biophysik, Max-von-Laue Strasse 3, 60438 Frankfurt, Germany
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261
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Knöpfel T, Akemann W. Nanobiotechnology: Remote control of cells. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2010; 5:560-561. [PMID: 20689523 DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2010.163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
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262
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Matzke AJM, Weiger TM, Matzke M. Ion channels at the nucleus: electrophysiology meets the genome. MOLECULAR PLANT 2010; 3:642-52. [PMID: 20410254 PMCID: PMC2910552 DOI: 10.1093/mp/ssq013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2010] [Accepted: 03/12/2010] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The nuclear envelope is increasingly viewed from an electrophysiological perspective by researchers interested in signal transduction pathways that influence gene transcription and other processes in the nucleus. Here, we describe evidence for ion channels and transporters in the nuclear membranes and for possible ion gating by the nuclear pores. We argue that a systems-level understanding of cellular regulation is likely to require the assimilation of nuclear electrophysiology into molecular and biochemical signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonius J M Matzke
- Gregor Mendel Institute of Molecular Plant Biology, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Dr. Bohr-Gasse 3, A-1030 Vienna, Austria.
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263
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Richards BA, Aizenman CD, Akerman CJ. In vivo spike-timing-dependent plasticity in the optic tectum of Xenopus laevis. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2010; 2:7. [PMID: 21423493 PMCID: PMC3059697 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2010.00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2010] [Accepted: 05/17/2010] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) is found in vivo in a variety of systems and species, but the first demonstrations of in vivo STDP were carried out in the optic tectum of Xenopus laevis embryos. Since then, the optic tectum has served as an excellent experimental model for studying STDP in sensory systems, allowing researchers to probe the developmental consequences of this form of synaptic plasticity during early development. In this review, we will describe what is known about the role of STDP in shaping feed-forward and recurrent circuits in the optic tectum with a focus on the functional implications for vision. We will discuss both the similarities and differences between the optic tectum and mammalian sensory systems that are relevant to STDP. Finally, we will highlight the unique properties of the embryonic tectum that make it an important system for researchers who are interested in how STDP contributes to activity-dependent development of sensory computations.
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264
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Abstract
Homeostatic synaptic plasticity is a negative feedback mechanism that neurons use to offset excessive excitation or inhibition by adjusting their synaptic strengths. Recent findings reveal a complex web of signaling processes involved in this compensatory form of synaptic strength regulation, and in contrast to the popular view of homeostatic plasticity as a slow, global phenomenon, neurons may also rapidly tune the efficacy of individual synapses on demand. Here we review our current understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms of homeostatic synaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karine Pozo
- MRC Cell Biology Unit and MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
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265
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Abstract
Voltage-sensitive dyes are important tools for assessing network and single-cell excitability, but an untested premise in most cases is that the dyes do not interfere with the parameters (membrane potential, excitability) that they are designed to measure. We found that popular members of several different families of voltage-sensitive dyes modulate GABA(A) receptor with maximum efficacy and potency similar to clinically used GABA(A) receptor modulators. Di-4-ANEPPS and DiBAC4(3) potentiated GABA function with micromolar and high nanomolar potency, respectively, and yielded strong maximum effects similar to barbiturates and neurosteroids. Newer blue oxonols had biphasic effects on GABA(A) receptor function at nanomolar and micromolar concentrations, with maximum potentiation comparable to that of saturating benzodiazepine effects. ANNINE-6 and ANNINE-6plus had no detectable effect on GABA(A) receptor function. Even dyes with no activity on GABA(A) receptors at baseline induced photodynamic enhancement of GABA(A) receptors. The basal effects of dyes were sufficient to prolong IPSCs and to dampen network activity in multielectrode array recordings. Therefore, the dual effects of voltage-sensitive dyes on GABAergic inhibition require caution in dye use for studies of excitability and network activity.
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266
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267
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Wolfe J, Houweling AR, Brecht M. Sparse and powerful cortical spikes. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2010; 20:306-12. [PMID: 20400290 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2010.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2010] [Revised: 03/18/2010] [Accepted: 03/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Activity in cortical networks is heterogeneous, sparse and often precisely timed. The functional significance of sparseness and precise spike timing is debated, but our understanding of the developmental and synaptic mechanisms that shape neuronal discharge patterns has improved. Evidence for highly specialized, selective and abstract cortical response properties is accumulating. Singe-cell stimulation experiments demonstrate a high sensitivity of cortical networks to the action potentials of some, but not all, single neurons. It is unclear how this sensitivity of cortical networks to small perturbations comes about and whether it is a generic property of cortex. The unforeseen sensitivity to cortical spikes puts serious constraints on the nature of neural coding schemes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Wolfe
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany.
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268
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Wilms CD, Häusser M. Lighting up neural networks using a new generation of genetically encoded calcium sensors. Nat Methods 2009; 6:871-2. [PMID: 19935839 DOI: 10.1038/nmeth1209-871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Two improved genetically encoded calcium indicators-based on structure-guided sensor design or on precise subcellular targeting to presynaptic boutons-allow single spikes to be detected in genetically defined populations of neurons and synapses in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian D Wilms
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, UK
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269
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Wisden W, Murray AJ, McClure C, Wulff P. Studying Cerebellar Circuits by Remote Control of Selected Neuronal Types with GABA(A) Receptors. Front Mol Neurosci 2009; 2:29. [PMID: 20076763 PMCID: PMC2805427 DOI: 10.3389/neuro.02.029.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2009] [Accepted: 11/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although GABAA receptor-mediated inhibition of cerebellar Purkinje cells by molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) has been studied intensely at the cellular level, it has remained unclear how this inhibition regulates cerebellum-dependent behaviour. We have implemented two complementary approaches to investigate the function of the MLI-Purkinje cell synapse on the behavioural level. In the first approach we permanently disrupted inhibitory fast synaptic transmission at the synapse by genetically removing the postsynaptic GABAA receptors from Purkinje cells (PC-Δγ2 mice). We found that chronic disruption of the MLI-Purkinje cell synapse strongly impaired cerebellar learning of the vestibular occular reflex (VOR), presumably by disrupting the temporal patterns of Purkinje cell activity. However, in PC-Δγ2 mice the baseline VOR reflex was only mildly affected; indeed PC-Δγ2 mice show no ataxia or gait abnormalities, suggesting that MLI control of Purkinje cell activity is either not involved in ongoing motor tasks or that the system compensates for its loss. To investigate the latter possibility we developed an alternative genetic technique; we made the MLI-Purkinje cell synapse selectively sensitive to rapid manipulation with the GABAA receptor modulator zolpidem (PC-γ2-swap mice). Minutes after intraperitoneal zolpidem injection, these PC-γ2-swap mice developed severe motor abnormalities, revealing a substantial contribution of the MLI-Purkinje cell synapses to real time motor control. The cell-type selective permanent knockout of synaptic GABAergic input and the fast reversible modulation of GABAergic input at the same synapse illustrate how pursuing both strategies gives a fuller view.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Wisden
- Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Imperial College London London, UK
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