Agonist-induced conformational changes in the G-protein-coupling domain of the beta 2 adrenergic receptor

Conformational changes that occur during M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor activation probed by the use of an in situ disulfide cross-linking strategy

The structural changes involved in ligand-dependent activation of G protein-coupled receptors are not well understood at present. To address this issue, we developed an in situ disulfide cross-linking strategy using the rat M(3) muscarinic receptor, a prototypical G(q)-coupled receptor, as a model system. It is known that a tyrosine residue (Tyr(254)) located at the C terminus of transmembrane domain (TM) V and several primarily hydrophobic amino acids present within the cytoplasmic portion of TM VI play key roles in determining the G protein coupling selectivity of the M(3) receptor subtype. To examine whether M3 receptor activation involves changes in the relative orientations of these functionally critical residues, pairs of cysteine residues were substituted into a modified version of the M(3) receptor that contained a factor Xa cleavage site within the third intracellular loop and lacked most endogenous cysteine residues. All analyzed mutant receptors contained a Y254C point mutation and a second cysteine substitution within the segment Lys(484)-Ser(493) at the intracellular end of TM VI. Following their transient expression in COS-7 cells, mutant receptors present in their native membrane environment (in situ) were subjected to mild oxidizing conditions, either in the absence or in the presence of the muscarinic agonist, carbachol. The successful formation of disulfide cross-links was monitored by studying changes in the electrophoretic mobility of oxidized, factor Xa-treated receptors on SDS gels. The observed cross-linking patterns indicated that M(3) receptor activation leads to structural changes that allow the cytoplasmic ends of TM V and TM VI to move closer to each other and that also appear to involve a major change in secondary structure at the cytoplasmic end of TM VI. This is the first study employing an in situ disulfide cross-linking strategy to examine agonist-dependent dynamic structural changes in a G protein-coupled receptor.

Mutational and computational analysis of the alpha(1b)-adrenergic receptor. Involvement of basic and hydrophobic residues in receptor activation and G protein coupling

To investigate their role in receptor coupling to G(q), we mutated all basic amino acids and some conserved hydrophobic residues of the cytosolic surface of the alpha(1b)-adrenergic receptor (AR). The wild type and mutated receptors were expressed in COS-7 cells and characterized for their ligand binding properties and ability to increase inositol phosphate accumulation. The experimental results have been interpreted in the context of both an ab initio model of the alpha(1b)-AR and of a new homology model built on the recently solved crystal structure of rhodopsin. Among the twenty-three basic amino acids mutated only mutations of three, Arg(254) and Lys(258) in the third intracellular loop and Lys(291) at the cytosolic extension of helix 6, markedly impaired the receptor-mediated inositol phosphate production. Additionally, mutations of two conserved hydrophobic residues, Val(147) and Leu(151) in the second intracellular loop had significant effects on receptor function. The functional analysis of the receptor mutants in conjunction with the predictions of molecular modeling supports the hypothesis that Arg(254), Lys(258), as well as Leu(151) are directly involved in receptor-G protein interaction and/or receptor-mediated activation of the G protein. In contrast, the residues belonging to the cytosolic extensions of helices 3 and 6 play a predominant role in the activation process of the alpha(1b)-AR. These findings contribute to the delineation of the molecular determinants of the alpha(1b)-AR/G(q) interface.

Beta-adrenergic signaling in the heart: dual coupling of the beta2-adrenergic receptor to G(s) and G(i) proteins

Beta-adrenergic receptor (AR) subtypes are archetypical members of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily. Whereas both beta1AR and beta2AR stimulate the classic G(s)-adenylyl cyclase-3',5'-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-protein kinase A (PKA) signaling cascade, beta2AR couples to both G(s) and G(i) proteins, activating bifurcated signaling pathways. In the heart, dual coupling of the beta2AR to G(s) and G(i) results in compartmentalization of the G(s)-stimulated cAMP signal, thus selectively affecting plasma membrane effectors (such as L-type Ca(2+) channels) and bypassing cytoplasmic target proteins (such as phospholamban and myofilament contractile proteins). More important, the beta2AR-to-G(i) branch delivers a powerful cell survival signal that counters apoptosis induced by the concurrent G(s)-mediated signal or by a wide range of assaulting factors. This survival pathway sequentially involves G(i), G(beta)(gamma), phosphoinositide 3-kinase, and Akt. Furthermore, cardiac-specific transgenic overexpression of betaAR subtypes in mice results in distinctly different phenotypes in terms of the likelihood of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. These findings indicate that stimulation of the two betaAR subtypes activates overlapping, but different, sets of signal transduction mechanisms, and fulfills distinct or even opposing physiological and pathophysiological roles. Because of these differences, selective activation of cardiac beta2AR may provide catecholamine-dependent inotropic support without cardiotoxic consequences, which might have beneficial effects in the failing heart.

G protein-coupled receptor drug discovery: implications from the crystal structure of rhodopsin

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a functionally diverse group of membrane proteins that play a critical role in signal transduction. Because of the lack of a high-resolution structure, the heptahelical transmembrane bundle within the N-terminal extracellular and C-terminal intracellular region of these receptors has initially been modeled based on the high-resolution structure of bacterial retinal-binding protein, bacteriorhodopsin. However, the low-resolution structure of rhodopsin, a prototypical GPCR, revealed that there is a minor relationship between GPCRs and bacteriorhodopsins. The high-resolution crystal structure of the rhodopsin ground state and further refinements of the model provide the first structural information about the entire organization of the polypeptide chain and post-translational moieties. These studies provide a structural template for Family 1 GPCRs that has the potential to significantly improve structure-based approaches to GPCR drug discovery.

Single-molecule spectroscopy of the beta(2) adrenergic receptor: observation of conformational substates in a membrane protein

Single-molecule studies of the conformations of the intact beta(2) adrenergic receptor were performed in solution. Photon bursts from the fluorescently tagged adrenergic receptor in a micelle were recorded. A photon-burst algorithm and a Poisson time filter were implemented to characterize single molecules diffusing across the probe volume of a confocal microscope. The effects of molecular diffusion and photon number fluctuations were deconvoluted by assuming that Poisson distributions characterize the molecular occupation and photon numbers. Photon-burst size histograms were constructed, from which the source intensity distributions were extracted. Different conformations of the beta(2) adrenergic receptor cause quenching of the bound fluorophore to different extents and hence produce different photon-burst sizes. An analysis of the photon-burst histograms shows that there are at least two distinct substates for the native adrenergic membrane receptor. This behavior is in contrast to one peak observed for the dye molecule, rhodamine 6G. We test the reliability and robustness of the substate number determination by investigating the application of different binning criteria. Conformational changes associated with agonist binding result in a marked change in the distribution of photon-burst sizes. These studies provide insight into the conformational heterogeneity of G protein-coupled receptors in the presence and absence of a bound agonist.

Functionally different agonists induce distinct conformations in the G protein coupling domain of the beta 2 adrenergic receptor

G protein-coupled receptors represent the largest class of drug discovery targets. Drugs that activate G protein-coupled receptors are classified as either agonists or partial agonists. To study the mechanism whereby these different classes of activating ligands modulate receptor function, we directly monitored ligand-induced conformational changes in the G protein-coupling domain of the beta(2) adrenergic receptor. Fluorescence lifetime analysis of a reporter fluorophore covalently attached to this domain revealed that, in the absence of ligands, this domain oscillates around a single detectable conformation. Binding to an antagonist does not change this conformation but does reduce the flexibility of the domain. However, when the beta(2) adrenergic receptor is bound to a full agonist, the G protein coupling domain exists in two distinct conformations. Moreover, the conformations induced by a full agonist can be distinguished from those induced by partial agonists. These results provide new insight into the structural consequence of antagonist binding and the basis of agonism and partial agonism.