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van Asseldonk EJP, Stienstra R, Koenen TB, van Tits LJH, Joosten LAB, Tack CJ, Netea MG. The effect of the interleukin-1 cytokine family members IL-1F6 and IL-1F8 on adipocyte differentiation. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2010; 18:2234-6. [PMID: 20300079 DOI: 10.1038/oby.2010.55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Obesity is characterized by chronic low-grade inflammation originating from expanding adipose tissue. In the present study, we examined the adipogenic expression levels of IL-1F6 and IL-1F8, both members of the IL-1 family of cytokines, and their effects on adipose tissue gene expression. Although IL-1F6 is primarily present in adipose tissue resident macrophages and induced by inflammation, IL-1F8 is absent. IL-1F6, but not IL-1F8, reduces adipocyte differentiation, as shown by a significant decrease in PPARγ gene expression. Finally, both IL-1F6 and IL-1F8 are able to induce inflammatory gene expression in mature adipocytes. In conclusion, we demonstrate for the first time that IL-1F6 is present in adipose tissue and that IL-1F6 and IL-1F8 are involved in the regulation of adipose tissue gene expression. Importantly, IL-1F6 inhibits PPARγ expression which may lead to reduced adipocyte differentiation suggesting metabolic effects of this cytokine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin J P van Asseldonk
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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252
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Beaudry VG, Jiang D, Dusek RL, Park EJ, Knezevich S, Ridd K, Vogel H, Bastian BC, Attardi LD. Loss of the p53/p63 regulated desmosomal protein Perp promotes tumorigenesis. PLoS Genet 2010; 6:e1001168. [PMID: 20975948 PMCID: PMC2958815 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1001168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2010] [Accepted: 09/20/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Dysregulated cell–cell adhesion plays a critical role in epithelial cancer development. Studies of human and mouse cancers have indicated that loss of adhesion complexes known as adherens junctions contributes to tumor progression and metastasis. In contrast, little is known regarding the role of the related cell–cell adhesion junction, the desmosome, during cancer development. Studies analyzing expression of desmosome components during human cancer progression have yielded conflicting results, and therefore genetic studies using knockout mice to examine the functional consequence of desmosome inactivation for tumorigenesis are essential for elucidating the role of desmosomes in cancer development. Here, we investigate the consequences of desmosome loss for carcinogenesis by analyzing conditional knockout mice lacking Perp, a p53/p63 regulated gene that encodes an important component of desmosomes. Analysis of Perp-deficient mice in a UVB-induced squamous cell skin carcinoma model reveals that Perp ablation promotes both tumor initiation and progression. Tumor development is associated with inactivation of both of Perp's known functions, in apoptosis and cell–cell adhesion. Interestingly, Perp-deficient tumors exhibit widespread downregulation of desmosomal constituents while adherens junctions remain intact, suggesting that desmosome loss is a specific event important for tumorigenesis rather than a reflection of a general change in differentiation status. Similarly, human squamous cell carcinomas display loss of PERP expression with retention of adherens junctions components, indicating that this is a relevant stage of human cancer development. Using gene expression profiling, we show further that Perp loss induces a set of inflammation-related genes that could stimulate tumorigenesis. Together, these studies suggest that Perp-deficiency promotes cancer by enhancing cell survival, desmosome loss, and inflammation, and they highlight a fundamental role for Perp and desmosomes in tumor suppression. An understanding of the factors affecting cancer progression is important for ultimately improving the diagnosis, prognostication, and treatment of cancer. Changes in tissue architecture, such as loss of adhesion between cells, have been shown to facilitate cancer development, especially metastasis where cells can detach from a tumor and spread throughout the body. While various studies have demonstrated that inactivation of an adhesion complex known as the adherens junction promotes cancer development and metastasis, little is known about the role of the desmosome—a related cell–cell adhesion complex—in tumorigenesis. Here we examine the consequence of desmosome-deficiency for tumor development by studying mice lacking a key component of desmosomes in the skin, a protein known as Perp. Using a mouse model for human skin cancer, in which ultraviolet light promotes skin cancer development, we demonstrate that Perp-deficiency indeed leads to accelerated skin tumorigenesis. We similarly observe that PERP is lost during human skin cancer development, suggesting that PERP is also important as a tumor suppressor in humans. These findings demonstrate that desmosome-deficiency achieved by Perp inactivation can promote cancer and suggest the potential utility of monitoring PERP status for staging, prognostication, or treatment of human cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica G. Beaudry
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Dadi Jiang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Rachel L. Dusek
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Eunice J. Park
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Stevan Knezevich
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Katie Ridd
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Hannes Vogel
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Boris C. Bastian
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology and UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Laura D. Attardi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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253
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Chustz RT, Nagarkar DR, Poposki JA, Favoreto S, Avila PC, Schleimer RP, Kato A. Regulation and function of the IL-1 family cytokine IL-1F9 in human bronchial epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2010; 45:145-53. [PMID: 20870894 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2010-0075oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The IL-1 family of cytokines, which now includes 11 members, is well known to participate in inflammation. Although the most recently recognized IL-1 family cytokines (IL-1F5-11) have been shown to be expressed in airway epithelial cells, the regulation of their expression and function in the epithelium has not been extensively studied. We investigated the regulation of IL-1F5-11 in primary normal human bronchial epithelial cells. Messenger (m)RNAs for IL-1F6 and IL-1F9, but not IL-1F5, IL-1F8 or IL-1F10, were significantly up-regulated by TNF, IL-1β, IL-17 and the Toll-like receptor (TLR)3 ligand double-stranded (ds)RNA. mRNAs for IL-1F7 and IL-1F11 (IL-33) were weakly up-regulated by some of the cytokines tested. Notably, mRNAs for IL-1F6 and IL-1F9 were synergistically enhanced by the combination of TNF/IL-17 or dsRNA/IL-17. IL-1F9 protein was detected in the supernatant following stimulation with dsRNA or a combination of dsRNA and IL-17. IL-1F6 protein was detected in the cell lysate but was not detected in the supernatant. We screened for the receptor for IL-1F9 and found that lung fibroblasts expressed this receptor. We found that IL-1F9 activated mitogen-activated protein kinases and the transcription factor NF-κB in primary normal human lung fibroblasts. IL-1F9 also stimulated the expression of the neutrophil chemokines IL-8 and CXCL3 and the Th17 chemokine CCL20 in lung fibroblasts. These results suggest that epithelial activation by TLR3 (e.g., by respiratory viral infection) and exposure to cytokines from Th17 cells (IL-17) and inflammatory cells (TNF) may amplify neutrophilic inflammation in the airway via induction of IL-1F9 and activation of fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina T Chustz
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, 240 E. Huron, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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254
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Blumberg H, Dinh H, Dean C, Trueblood ES, Bailey K, Shows D, Bhagavathula N, Aslam MN, Varani J, Towne JE, Sims JE. IL-1RL2 and its ligands contribute to the cytokine network in psoriasis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 185:4354-62. [PMID: 20833839 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1000313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Psoriasis is a common immune-mediated disease in European populations; it is characterized by inflammation and altered epidermal differentiation leading to redness and scaling. T cells are thought to be the main driver, but there is also evidence for an epidermal contribution. In this article, we show that treatment of mouse skin overexpressing the IL-1 family member, IL-1F6, with phorbol ester leads to an inflammatory condition with macroscopic and histological similarities to human psoriasis. Inflammatory cytokines thought to be important in psoriasis, such as TNF-α, IL-17A, and IL-23, are upregulated in the mouse skin. These cytokines are induced by and can induce IL-1F6 and related IL-1 family cytokines. Inhibition of TNF or IL-23 inhibits the increased epidermal thickness, inflammation, and cytokine production. Blockade of IL-1F6 receptor also resolves the inflammatory changes in human psoriatic lesional skin transplanted onto immunodeficient mice. These data suggest a role for IL-1F family members in psoriasis.
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255
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Inhibition of NF-κB signaling retards eosinophilic dermatitis in SHARPIN-deficient mice. J Invest Dermatol 2010; 131:141-9. [PMID: 20811394 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2010.259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The NF-κB pathway performs pivotal roles in diverse physiological processes such as immunity, inflammation, proliferation, and apoptosis. NF-κB is kept inactive in the cytoplasm through association with inhibitors (IκB), and translocates to the nucleus to activate its target genes after the IκBs are phosphorylated and degraded. Here, we demonstrate that loss of function of SHANK-associated RH domain interacting protein (SHARPIN) leads to activation of NF-κB signaling in skin, resulting in the development of an idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome (IHES) with eosinophilic dermatitis in C57BL/KaLawRij-Sharpin(cpdm)/RijSunJ mice, and clonal expansion of B-1 B cells and CD3(+)CD4(-)CD8(-) T cells. Transcription profiling in skin revealed constitutive activation of classical NF-κB pathways, predominantly by overexpressed members of IL1 family. Compound-null mutants for both the IL1 receptor accessory protein (Il1rap(tm1Roml)) and SHARPIN (Sharpin(cpdm)) resulted in mice having decreased skin disease severity. Inhibition of IκBA degradation by the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib alleviated the dermatitis in Sharpin(cpdm) mice. These results indicate that absence of SHARPIN causes IHES with eosinophilic dermatitis by NF-κB activation, and bortezomib may be an effective treatment for skin problems of IHES.
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256
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Swamy M, Jamora C, Havran W, Hayday A. Epithelial decision makers: in search of the 'epimmunome'. Nat Immunol 2010; 11:656-65. [PMID: 20644571 PMCID: PMC2950874 DOI: 10.1038/ni.1905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Frequent microbial and nonmicrobial challenges to epithelial cells trigger discrete pathways, promoting molecular changes such as the secretion of specific cytokines and chemokines and alterations to molecules displayed at the epithelial cell surface. In combination, these molecules impose key decisions on innate and adaptive immune cells. Depending on context, those decisions can be as diverse as those imposed by professional antigen-presenting cells, benefiting the host by balancing immune competence with the avoidance of immunopathology. Nonetheless, this potency of epithelial cells is also consistent with the causal contribution of epithelial dysregulation to myriad inflammatory diseases. This pathogenic axis provides an attractive target for tissue-specific clinical manipulation. In this context, a research goal should be to identify all molecules used by epithelial cells to instruct immune cells. We term this the 'epimmunome'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahima Swamy
- London Research Institute, CRUK, and Peter Gorer Dept of Immunobiology, King’s College London at Guy’s Hospital, London, UK
| | - Colin Jamora
- Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, Division of Biological Sciences, Natural Science Building, Room 6311, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0380, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Wendy Havran
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Adrian Hayday
- London Research Institute, CRUK, and Peter Gorer Dept of Immunobiology, King’s College London at Guy’s Hospital, London, UK
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257
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Yang J, Meyer M, Müller AK, Böhm F, Grose R, Dauwalder T, Verrey F, Kopf M, Partanen J, Bloch W, Ornitz DM, Werner S. Fibroblast growth factor receptors 1 and 2 in keratinocytes control the epidermal barrier and cutaneous homeostasis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 188:935-52. [PMID: 20308431 PMCID: PMC2845079 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200910126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Loss of FGFRs results in skin abnormalities due to activation of keratinocytes and epidermal T cells. Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are master regulators of organogenesis and tissue homeostasis. In this study, we used different combinations of FGF receptor (FGFR)-deficient mice to unravel their functions in the skin. Loss of the IIIb splice variants of FGFR1 and FGFR2 in keratinocytes caused progressive loss of skin appendages, cutaneous inflammation, keratinocyte hyperproliferation, and acanthosis. We identified loss of FGF-induced expression of tight junction components with subsequent deficits in epidermal barrier function as the mechanism underlying the progressive inflammatory skin disease. The defective barrier causes activation of keratinocytes and epidermal γδ T cells, which produce interleukin-1 family member 8 and S100A8/A9 proteins. These cytokines initiate an inflammatory response and induce a double paracrine loop through production of keratinocyte mitogens by dermal cells. Our results identify essential roles for FGFs in the regulation of the epidermal barrier and in the prevention of cutaneous inflammation, and highlight the importance of stromal–epithelial interactions in skin homeostasis and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingxuan Yang
- Department of Biology, Institute of Cell Biology, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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258
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Abstract
Although there has been a great amount of progress in the 25 years since the first reporting of the cDNA for IL-1alpha and IL-1beta, the history of IL-1 goes back to the early 1940s. In fact, the entire field of inflammatory cytokines, TLR and the innate immune response can be found in the story of IL-1. This Viewpoint follows the steps from the identification of the fever-inducing activities of "soluble factors" produced by endotoxin-stimulated leukocytes through to the discovery of cryopyrin and the caspase-1 inflammasome and on to the clinical benefits of anti-IL-1beta-based therapeutics. It also discusses some of the current controversies regarding the activation of the inflammasome. The future of novel anti-inflammatory agents to combat chronic inflammation is based, in part, on the diseases that are uniquely responsive to anti-IL-1beta, which is surely a reason to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the cloning of IL-1alpha and IL-1beta.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles A Dinarello
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
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259
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Ramadas RA, Ewart SL, Medoff BD, LeVine AM. Interleukin-1 family member 9 stimulates chemokine production and neutrophil influx in mouse lungs. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2010; 44:134-45. [PMID: 20299540 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2009-0315oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a proinflammatory cytokine that signals through the Type I IL-1 receptor (IL-1RI). Novel IL-1-like cytokines were recently identified. Their functions in lung disease remain unclear. Interleukin-1 family member-9 (IL-1F9) is one such IL-1-like cytokine, expressed in the lungs of humans and mice. IL-1F9 signals through IL-1 receptor-related protein 2 (IL-1Rrp2/IL-1RL2), which is distinct from IL-1RI. We sought to determine if IL-1F9 acts as a proinflammatory cytokine in lung disease. IL-1F9 protein was increased in lung homogenates of house dust mite-challenged A/J mice compared with controls, and expression was seen in airway epithelial cells. The intratracheal administration of recombinant mouse IL-1F9 increased airway hyperresponsiveness and induced neutrophil influx and mucus production, but not eosinophilic infiltration in the lungs of mice. In addition, IL-1α protein levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, chemokines, and chemokine-receptor mRNA expression in the lungs were increased after the instillation of intratracheal IL-1F9. Consistent with these changes, NF-κB transcription factor activity was increased in the lungs of mice challenged with IL-1F9 and in a macrophage cell line treated with IL-1F9. These data suggest that IL-1F9 is upregulated during inflammation, and acts as a proinflammatory cytokine in the lungs.
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260
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Romanowska M, Reilly L, Palmer CNA, Gustafsson MCU, Foerster J. Activation of PPARbeta/delta causes a psoriasis-like skin disease in vivo. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9701. [PMID: 20300524 PMCID: PMC2838790 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2009] [Accepted: 02/23/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Psoriasis is one of the most frequent skin diseases world-wide. The disease impacts enormously on affected patients and poses a huge financial burden on health care providers. Several lines of evidence suggest that the nuclear hormone receptor peroxisome proliferator activator (PPAR) β/δ, known to regulate epithelial differentiation and wound healing, contributes to psoriasis pathogenesis. It is unclear, however, whether activation of PPARβ/δ is sufficient to trigger psoriasis-like changes in vivo. Methodology/Principal Findings Using immunohistochemistry, we define the distribution of PPARβ/δ in the skin lesions of psoriasis. By expression profiling, we confirm that PPARβ/δ is overexpressed in the vast majority of psoriasis patients. We further establish a transgenic model allowing inducible activation of PPARβ/δ in murine epidermis mimicking its distribution in psoriasis lesions. Upon activation of PPARβ/δ, transgenic mice sustain an inflammatory skin disease strikingly similar to psoriasis, featuring hyperproliferation of keratinocytes, dendritic cell accumulation, and endothelial activation. Development of this phenotype requires the activation of the Th17 subset of T cells, shown previously to be central to psoriasis. Moreover, gene dysregulation in the transgenic mice is highly similar to that in psoriasis. Key transcriptional programs activated in psoriasis, including IL1-related signalling and cholesterol biosynthesis, are replicated in the mouse model, suggesting that PPARβ/δ regulates these transcriptional changes in psoriasis. Finally, we identify phosphorylation of STAT3 as a novel pathway activated by PPARβ/δ and show that inhibition of STAT3 phosphorylation blocks disease development. Conclusions Activation of PPARβ/δ in the epidermis is sufficient to trigger inflammatory changes, immune activation, and signalling, and gene dysregulation characteristic of psoriasis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Louise Reilly
- Division of Experimental Medicine, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Colin N. A. Palmer
- Biomedical Research Institute, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Mattias C. U. Gustafsson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Medical Microbiology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - John Foerster
- Division of Experimental Medicine, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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261
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Ichii O, Otsuka S, Sasaki N, Yabuki A, Ohta H, Takiguchi M, Hashimoto Y, Endoh D, Kon Y. Local overexpression of interleukin-1 family, member 6 relates to the development of tubulointerstitial lesions. J Transl Med 2010; 90:459-75. [PMID: 20101239 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2009.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Identification of factors that exacerbate a disease is important for the development of biomarkers. In this study, we discovered ectopic overexpression of interleukin-1 family, member-6 (IL-1F6) in several murine renal diseases. IL-1F6 participates in cytokine/chemokine production in the epithelium. In PCR array analysis for inflammatory mediators, Il1f6 showed the highest expression in the kidney of the B6.MRLc1 glomerulonephritis model. IL-1F6 was localized in the epithelium from the DCTs to CCDs, which showed tubular dilations or epithelial deciduations. Ultrastructual examination of the epithelial cells revealed that IL-1F6 was localized on the cytoplasmic ribosome, vesicles, and nucleus. In and around these tubules, we found infiltrations of CD3-positive T-cells and nestin- or alpha-smooth-muscle actin-positive mesenchymal cells. Expression of the IL-1F6 protein and Il1f6 mRNA in the kidney was increased by the development of TILs in the B6.MRLc1 model and in lupus (BXSB, NZB/WF1, and MRL/lpr), nephrotic syndrome (ICGN), and streptozotocin-induced diabetic models. IL-1F6 was also detected in the epithelia having squamous or deciduous contours in other organs such as the skin, esophagus, thymus, or uterus. In vitro analysis using M-1 cells from the murine collecting duct revealed that Il1f6 mRNA induction was related to the upregulation of IL-6, TGF-beta receptor-1, and mesenchymal markers and to the downregulation of epithelial markers and changes in the squamous cells of the epithelium. Interestingly, urine Il1f6 mRNA expression was detected earlier than renal dysfunctions in these mouse models. Ectopic overexpression of IL-1F6 in kidneys is associated with TILs and especially with cell infiltrations and changes in epithelial morphology. We propose that local overexpression of IL-1F6 is related to the development of TILs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osamu Ichii
- Laboratory of Anatomy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan
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262
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Abstract
Over recent years it has become increasingly clear that innate immune responses can shape the adaptive immune response. Among the most potent molecules of the innate immune system are the interleukin-1 (IL-1) family members. These evolutionarily ancient cytokines are made by and act on innate immune cells to influence their survival and function. In addition, they act directly on lymphocytes to reinforce certain adaptive immune responses. This Review provides an overview of both the long-established and more recently characterized members of the IL-1 family. In addition to their effects on immune cells, their involvement in human disease and disease models is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Sims
- Amgen, 1201 Amgen Court West, Seattle, Washington 98119, USA.
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263
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Nickerson KM, Christensen SR, Shupe J, Kashgarian M, Kim D, Elkon K, Shlomchik MJ. TLR9 regulates TLR7- and MyD88-dependent autoantibody production and disease in a murine model of lupus. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 184:1840-8. [PMID: 20089701 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0902592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 250] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus is characterized by the production of autoantibodies against nucleic acid-associated Ags. We previously found that Tlr7 was required for anti-Sm and Tlr9 for anti-chromatin autoantibodies. Yet, although Tlr7 deficiency ameliorated disease, Tlr9 deficiency exacerbated it. Despite the mechanistic and clinical implications of this finding, it has yet to be elucidated. In this study, we characterize MRL/lpr lupus-prone mice genetically deficient in Tlr7, Tlr9, both Tlr7 and Tlr9, or Myd88 to test whether Tlr7 and Tlr9 function independently or instead regulate each other. We find that disease that is regulated by Tlr9 (and hence is worse in its absence) depends on Tlr7 for its manifestation. In addition, although Tlr7 and Tlr9 act in parallel pathways on different subsets of autoantibodies, Tlr9 also suppresses the production of Tlr7-dependent RNA-associated autoantibodies, suggesting previously unrecognized cross-regulation of autoantibody production as well. By comparing disease in mice deficient for Tlr7 and/or Tlr9 to those lacking Myd88, we also identify aspects of disease that have Tlr- and Myd88-independent components. These results suggest new models for how Tlr9 regulates and Tlr7 enhances disease and provide insight into aspects of autoimmune disease that are, and are not, influenced by TLR signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin M Nickerson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06519, USA
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264
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Suter MM, Schulze K, Bergman W, Welle M, Roosje P, Müller EJ. The keratinocyte in epidermal renewal and defence. Vet Dermatol 2009; 20:515-32. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3164.2009.00819.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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265
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Abstract
Human skin and its immune cells provide essential protection of the human body from injury and infection. Recent studies reinforce the importance of keratinocytes as sensors of danger through alert systems such as the inflammasome. In addition, newly identified CD103(+) dendritic cells are strategically positioned for cross-presentation of skin-tropic pathogens and accumulating data highlight a key role of tissue-resident rather than circulating T cells in skin homeostasis and pathology. This Review focuses on recent progress in dissecting the functional role of skin immune cells in skin disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank O Nestle
- St. John's Institute of Dermatology, King's College London, UK.
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266
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Garlanda C, Anders HJ, Mantovani A. TIR8/SIGIRR: an IL-1R/TLR family member with regulatory functions in inflammation and T cell polarization. Trends Immunol 2009; 30:439-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2009.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2009] [Revised: 06/24/2009] [Accepted: 06/24/2009] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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267
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Transient expression of ephrin b2 in perinatal skin is required for maintenance of keratinocyte homeostasis. J Invest Dermatol 2009; 129:2386-95. [PMID: 19571816 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2009.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The formation of functional skin entails multiple key signals that are implicated repeatedly in distinct processes during embryogenesis. Although Eph receptors and their membrane-bound ephrin ligands play a role in a wide variety of embryonic processes, their function in skin development has not been addressed. Here, we show that ephrin B2 is transiently expressed in hair buds during embryogenesis and in dermal mesenchymal cells during the perinatal period. Keratinocyte-specific ephrin B2-targeted mutant mice exhibit no skin phenotype, whereas postnatal systemic ephrin B2 ablation results in the enhancement of keratinocyte proliferation. Although the same treatment results in a defect of vascular remodeling, our analyses showed that the keratinocyte phenotype is not caused by hypoxia due to vascular defects. Interestingly, we found an enhanced expression of IL-1 family molecules, which have been implicated in the regulation of keratinocyte proliferation. On the basis of these observations, we propose that the transient expression of ephrin B2 in perinatal dermal mesenchymal cells plays a role in adjusting the activity of the mesenchymal microenvironment that regulates proliferation of keratinocytes.
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268
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Reddy S, Jia S, Geoffrey R, Lorier R, Suchi M, Broeckel U, Hessner MJ, Verbsky J. An autoinflammatory disease due to homozygous deletion of the IL1RN locus. N Engl J Med 2009; 360:2438-44. [PMID: 19494219 PMCID: PMC2803085 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa0809568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 286] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
We describe a patient with an autoinflammatory disease in which the main clinical features are pustular rash, marked osteopenia, lytic bone lesions, respiratory insufficiency, and thrombosis. Genetic studies revealed a 175-kb homozygous deletion at chromosome 2q13, which encompasses several interleukin-1 family members, including the gene encoding the interleukin-1-receptor antagonist (IL1RN). Mononuclear cells, obtained from the patient and cultured, produced large amounts of inflammatory cytokines, with increasing amounts secreted after stimulation with lipopolysaccharide. A similar increase was not observed in peripheral-blood mononuclear cells from a patient with neonatal-onset multisystem inflammatory disorder (NOMID). Treatment with anakinra completely resolved the symptoms and lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sreelatha Reddy
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin and the Children's Research Institute, Milwaukee 53201, USA
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269
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Fumagalli M, Pozzoli U, Cagliani R, Comi GP, Riva S, Clerici M, Bresolin N, Sironi M. Parasites represent a major selective force for interleukin genes and shape the genetic predisposition to autoimmune conditions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 206:1395-408. [PMID: 19468064 PMCID: PMC2715056 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20082779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Many human genes have adapted to the constant threat of exposure to infectious agents; according to the “hygiene hypothesis,” lack of exposure to parasites in modern settings results in immune imbalances, augmenting susceptibility to the development of autoimmune and allergic conditions. Here, by estimating the number of pathogen species/genera in a specific geographic location (pathogen richness) for 52 human populations and analyzing 91 interleukin (IL)/IL receptor genes (IL genes), we show that helminths have been a major selective force on a subset of these genes. A population genetics analysis revealed that five IL genes, including IL7R and IL18RAP, have been a target of balancing selection, a selection process that maintains genetic variability within a population. Previous identification of polymorphisms in some of these loci, and their association with autoimmune conditions, prompted us to investigate the relationship between adaptation and disease. By searching for variants in IL genes identified in genome-wide association studies, we verified that six risk alleles for inflammatory bowel (IBD) or celiac disease are significantly correlated with micropathogen richness. These data support the hygiene hypothesis for IBD and provide a large set of putative targets for susceptibility to helminth infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Fumagalli
- Scientific Institute IRCCS E. Medea, Bioinformatic Laboratory, 23842 Bosisio Parini, Italy
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270
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Gabay C, McInnes IB. The biological and clinical importance of the 'new generation' cytokines in rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Res Ther 2009; 11:230. [PMID: 19519923 PMCID: PMC2714102 DOI: 10.1186/ar2680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A better understanding of cytokine biology over the last two decades has allowed the successful development of cytokine inhibitors against tumour necrosis factor and interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-6. The introduction of these therapies should be considered a breakthrough in the management of several rheumatic diseases. However, many patients will exhibit no or only partial response to these therapies, thus emphasising the importance of exploring other therapeutic strategies. In this article, we review the most recent information on novel cytokines that are often members of previously described cytokine families such as the IL-1 superfamily (IL-18 and IL-33), the IL-12 superfamily (IL-27 and IL-35), the IL-2 superfamily (IL-15 and IL-21), and IL-17. Several data derived from experimental models and clinical samples indicate that some of these cytokines contribute to the pathophysiology of arthritis and other inflammatory diseases. Targeting of some of these cytokines has already been tested in clinical trials with interesting results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cem Gabay
- Division of Rheumatology, University Hospitals of Geneva & Department of Pathology-Immunology, University of Geneva Medical School, 1211 Geneva 14, Switzerland.
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271
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Abstract
The interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R)/Toll-like receptor (TLR) superfamily was first defined in 1998 as a family of proteins that contain the Toll-IL-1 receptor domain. At that time, there were a number of orphan receptors in the IL-1R branch, and the TLRs had yet to be shown to be key innate immune receptors that sense microbial products. We now know a great deal more about this superfamily, with the description of novel IL-1 family members such as IL-1F6 signaling via IL-1Rrp2 and IL33 signaling via ST2. Remarkable progress has been made in our understanding of the functions of the TLRs, leading to a renaissance of interest in innate immunity. The importance of IL-1 is also being rediscovered, with the observation that Nalp3 is a key regulator of caspase-1, the enzyme that processes pro-IL-1beta into the mature cytokine. This area has therefore proved very fruitful in terms of improving our knowledge of the molecular basis for innate immunity and inflammation, and we can anticipate further discoveries in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke A J O'Neill
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
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272
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Camargo JF, Quinones MP, Mummidi S, Srinivas S, Gaitan AA, Begum K, Jimenez F, VanCompernolle S, Unutmaz D, Ahuja SS, Ahuja SK. CCR5 expression levels influence NFAT translocation, IL-2 production, and subsequent signaling events during T lymphocyte activation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 182:171-82. [PMID: 19109148 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.182.1.171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Ligands of CCR5, the major coreceptor of HIV-1, costimulate T lymphocyte activation. However, the full impact of CCR5 expression on T cell responses remains unknown. Here, we show that compared with CCR5(+/+), T cells from CCR5(-/-) mice secrete lower amounts of IL-2, and a similar phenotype is observed in humans who lack CCR5 expression (CCR5-Delta32/Delta32 homozygotes) as well as after Ab-mediated blockade of CCR5 in human T cells genetically intact for CCR5 expression. Conversely, overexpression of CCR5 in human T cells results in enhanced IL-2 production. CCR5 surface levels correlate positively with IL-2 protein and mRNA abundance, suggesting that CCR5 affects IL-2 gene regulation. Signaling via CCR5 resulted in NFAT transactivation in T cells that was blocked by Abs against CCR5 agonists, suggesting a link between CCR5 and downstream pathways that influence IL-2 expression. Furthermore, murine T cells lacking CCR5 had reduced levels of intranuclear NFAT following activation. Accordingly, CCR5 expression also promoted IL-2-dependent events, including CD25 expression, STAT5 phosphorylation, and T cell proliferation. We therefore suggest that by influencing a NFAT-mediated pathway that regulates IL-2 production and IL-2-dependent events, CCR5 may play a critical role in T cell responses. In accord with our prior inferences from genetic-epidemiologic studies, such CCR5-dependent responses might constitute a viral entry-independent mechanism by which CCR5 may influence HIV-AIDS pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose F Camargo
- Veterans Administration Research Center for AIDS and HIV-1 Infection, South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
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273
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Quigley DA, To MD, Pérez-Losada J, Pelorosso FG, Mao JH, Nagase H, Ginzinger DG, Balmain A. Genetic architecture of mouse skin inflammation and tumour susceptibility. Nature 2009; 458:505-8. [PMID: 19136944 PMCID: PMC4460995 DOI: 10.1038/nature07683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2008] [Accepted: 12/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Germline polymorphisms in model organisms and humans influence susceptibility to complex trait diseases such as inflammation and cancer. Mice of the Mus spretus species are resistant to tumour development, and crosses between M. spretus and susceptible Mus musculus strains have been used to map locations of genetic variants that contribute to skin cancer susceptibility. We have integrated germline polymorphisms with gene expression in normal skin from a M. musculus x M. spretus backcross to generate a network view of the gene expression architecture of mouse skin. Here we demonstrate how this approach identifies expression motifs that contribute to tissue organization and biological functions related to inflammation, haematopoiesis, cell cycle control and tumour susceptibility. Motifs associated with inflammation, epidermal barrier function and proliferation are differentially regulated in backcross mice susceptible or resistant to tumour development. The intestinal stem cell marker Lgr5 is identified as a candidate master regulator of the hair follicle, and the vitamin D receptor (Vdr) is linked to coordinated control of epidermal barrier function, inflammation and tumour susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Quigley
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94115, USA
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274
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Tajima M, Wakita D, Noguchi D, Chamoto K, Yue Z, Fugo K, Ishigame H, Iwakura Y, Kitamura H, Nishimura T. IL-6-dependent spontaneous proliferation is required for the induction of colitogenic IL-17-producing CD8+ T cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 205:1019-27. [PMID: 18426983 PMCID: PMC2373835 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20071133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
We propose a novel role for interleukin (IL) 6 in inducing rapid spontaneous proliferation (SP) of naive CD8+ T cells, which is a crucial step in the differentiation of colitogenic CD8+ T cells. Homeostasis of T cells is regulated by two distinct modes of cell proliferation: major histocompatibility complex/antigen–driven rapid SP and IL-7/IL-15–dependent slow homeostatic proliferation. Using our novel model of CD8+ T cell–dependent colitis, we found that SP of naive CD8+ T cells is essential for inducing pathogenic cytokine-producing effector T cells. The rapid SP was predominantly induced in mesenteric lymph nodes (LNs) but not in peripheral LNs under the influence of intestinal flora and IL-6. Indeed, this SP was markedly inhibited by treatment with anti–IL-6 receptor monoclonal antibody (IL-6R mAb) or antibiotic-induced flora depletion, but not by anti–IL-7R mAb and/or in IL-15–deficient conditions. Concomitantly with the inhibition of SP, anti–IL-6R mAb significantly inhibited the induction of CD8+ T cell–dependent autoimmune colitis. Notably, the transfer of naive CD8+ T cells derived from IL-17−/− mice did not induce autoimmune colitis. Thus, we conclude that IL-6 signaling is crucial for SP under lymphopenic conditions, which subsequently caused severe IL-17–producing CD8+ T cell–mediated autoimmune colitis. We suggest that anti–IL-6R mAb may become a promising strategy for the therapy of colitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Tajima
- Division of Immunoregulation, Section of Disease Control, Institute for Genetic Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0815, Japan
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275
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Editors' Picks. J Invest Dermatol 2008. [DOI: 10.1038/jid.2008.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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