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Maggi R, Cariboni AM, Marelli MM, Moretti RM, Andrè V, Marzagalli M, Limonta P. GnRH and GnRH receptors in the pathophysiology of the human female reproductive system. Hum Reprod Update 2015; 22:358-81. [PMID: 26715597 DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmv059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human reproduction depends on an intact hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. Hypothalamic gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) has been recognized, since its identification in 1971, as the central regulator of the production and release of the pituitary gonadotrophins that, in turn, regulate the gonadal functions and the production of sex steroids. The characteristic peculiar development, distribution and episodic activity of GnRH-producing neurons have solicited an interdisciplinary interest on the etiopathogenesis of several reproductive diseases. The more recent identification of a GnRH/GnRH receptor (GnRHR) system in both the human endometrium and ovary has widened the spectrum of action of the peptide and of its analogues beyond its hypothalamic function. METHODS An analysis of research and review articles published in international journals until June 2015 has been carried out to comprehensively summarize both the well established and the most recent knowledge on the physiopathology of the GnRH system in the central and peripheral control of female reproductive functions and diseases. RESULTS This review focuses on the role of GnRH neurons in the control of the reproductive axis. New knowledge is accumulating on the genetic programme that drives GnRH neuron development to ameliorate the diagnosis and treatment of GnRH deficiency and consequent delayed or absent puberty. Moreover, a better understanding of the mechanisms controlling the episodic release of GnRH during the onset of puberty and the ovulatory cycle has enabled the pharmacological use of GnRH itself or its synthetic analogues (agonists and antagonists) to either stimulate or to block the gonadotrophin secretion and modulate the functions of the reproductive axis in several reproductive diseases and in assisted reproduction technology. Several inputs from other neuronal populations, as well as metabolic, somatic and age-related signals, may greatly affect the functions of the GnRH pulse generator during the female lifespan; their modulation may offer new possible strategies for diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. A GnRH/GnRHR system is also expressed in female reproductive tissues (e.g. endometrium and ovary), both in normal and pathological conditions. The expression of this system in the human endometrium and ovary supports its physiological regulatory role in the processes of trophoblast invasion of the maternal endometrium and embryo implantation as well as of follicular development and corpus luteum functions. The GnRH/GnRHR system that is expressed in diseased tissues of the female reproductive tract (both benign and malignant) is at present considered an effective molecular target for the development of novel therapeutic approaches for these pathologies. GnRH agonists are also considered as a promising therapeutic approach to counteract ovarian failure in young female patients undergoing chemotherapy. CONCLUSIONS Increasing knowledge about the regulation of GnRH pulsatile release, as well as the therapeutic use of its analogues, offers interesting new perspectives in the diagnosis, treatment and outcome of female reproductive disorders, including tumoral and iatrogenic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Maggi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via G. Balzaretti, 9, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Cariboni
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via G. Balzaretti, 9, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Marina Montagnani Marelli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via G. Balzaretti, 9, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Roberta Manuela Moretti
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via G. Balzaretti, 9, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Valentina Andrè
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via G. Balzaretti, 9, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Monica Marzagalli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via G. Balzaretti, 9, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Patrizia Limonta
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via G. Balzaretti, 9, 20133 Milano, Italy
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Cui P, Yang C, Zhang K, Gao X, Luo L, Tian Y, Song M, Liu Y, Zhang Y, Li Y, Zhang X, Su S, Fang F, Ding J. Effect of estrogen on the expression of GnRH and kisspeptin in the hypothalamus of rats during puberty. Theriogenology 2015; 84:1556-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Revised: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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253
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Delay of the onset of puberty in female rats by prepubertal exposure to T-2 toxin. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:4668-83. [PMID: 26569305 PMCID: PMC4663527 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7114668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2015] [Revised: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Growing evidence has revealed the deleterious influence of environmental and food contaminants on puberty onset and development in both animals and children, provoking an increasing health concern. T-2 toxin, a naturally-produced Type A trichothecene mycotoxin which is frequently found in cereal grains and products intended for human and animal consumption, has been shown to impair the reproduction and development in animals. Nevertheless, whether this trichothecene mycotoxin can disturb the onset of puberty in females remains unclear. To clarify this point, infantile female rats were given a daily intragastric administration of vehicle or 187.5 μg/kg body weight of T-2 toxin for five consecutive days from postnatal day 15 to 19, and the effects on puberty onset were evaluated in the present study. The results revealed that the days of vaginal opening, first dioestrus, and first estrus in regular estrous cycle were delayed following prepubertal exposure to T-2 toxin. The relative weights of reproductive organs uterus, ovaries, and vagina, and the incidence of corpora lutea were all diminished in T-2 toxin-treated rats. Serum levels of gonadotropins luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and estradiol were also reduced by T-2 toxin treatment. The mRNA expressions of hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and pituitary GnRH receptor displayed significant reductions following exposure to T-2 toxin, which were consistent with the changes of serum gonadotropins, delayed reproductive organ development, and delayed vaginal opening. In conclusion, the present study reveals that prepubertal exposure to T-2 toxin delays the onset of puberty in immature female rats, probably by the mechanism of disturbance of hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis function. Considering the vulnerability of developmental children to food contaminants and the relative high level of dietary intake of T-2 toxin in children, we think the findings of the present study provide valuable information for the health risk assessment in children.
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254
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Golan M, Zelinger E, Zohar Y, Levavi-Sivan B. Architecture of GnRH-Gonadotrope-Vasculature Reveals a Dual Mode of Gonadotropin Regulation in Fish. Endocrinology 2015; 156:4163-73. [PMID: 26261873 DOI: 10.1210/en.2015-1150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The function and components of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis are conserved among vertebrates; however, in fish, a neuroglandular mode of delivery (direct contact between axons and endocrine cells) was considered dominant, whereas in tetrapods hypothalamic signals are relayed to their targets via the hypophysial portal blood system (neurovascular delivery mode). By using a transgenic zebrafish model we studied the functional and anatomical aspects of gonadotrope regulation thus revisiting the existing model. FSH cells were found to be situated close to the vasculature whereas the compact organization of LH cells prevented direct contact of all cells with the circulation. GnRH3 fibers formed multiple boutons upon reaching the pituitary, but most of these structures were located in the neurohypophysis rather than adjacent to gonadotropes. A close association was observed between FSH cells and GnRH3 boutons, but only a fifth of the LH cells were in direct contact with GnRH3 axons, suggesting that FSH cells are more directly regulated than LH cells. GnRH3 fibers closely followed the vasculature in the neurohypophysis and formed numerous boutons along these tracts. These vessels were found to be permeable to relatively large molecules, suggesting the uptake of GnRH3 peptides. Our findings have important implications regarding the differential regulation of LH and FSH and contradict the accepted notion that fish pituitary cells are mostly regulated directly by hypothalamic fibers. Instead, we provide evidence that zebrafish apply a dual mode of gonadotrope regulation by GnRH3 that combines both neuroglandular and neurovascular components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matan Golan
- Department of Animal Sciences (M.G., B.L.-S.) and The Interdepartmental Equipment Unit (E.Z.), The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel; and Department of Marine Biotechnology (Y.Z.), University of Maryland Baltimore County and Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, Baltimore, Maryland 21202
| | - Einat Zelinger
- Department of Animal Sciences (M.G., B.L.-S.) and The Interdepartmental Equipment Unit (E.Z.), The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel; and Department of Marine Biotechnology (Y.Z.), University of Maryland Baltimore County and Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, Baltimore, Maryland 21202
| | - Yonathan Zohar
- Department of Animal Sciences (M.G., B.L.-S.) and The Interdepartmental Equipment Unit (E.Z.), The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel; and Department of Marine Biotechnology (Y.Z.), University of Maryland Baltimore County and Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, Baltimore, Maryland 21202
| | - Berta Levavi-Sivan
- Department of Animal Sciences (M.G., B.L.-S.) and The Interdepartmental Equipment Unit (E.Z.), The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel; and Department of Marine Biotechnology (Y.Z.), University of Maryland Baltimore County and Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, Baltimore, Maryland 21202
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255
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Costa MA. The endocrine function of human placenta: an overview. Reprod Biomed Online 2015; 32:14-43. [PMID: 26615903 DOI: 10.1016/j.rbmo.2015.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Revised: 09/13/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
During pregnancy, several tightly coordinated and regulated processes take place to enable proper fetal development and gestational success. The formation and development of the placenta is one of these critical pregnancy events. This organ plays essential roles during gestation, including fetal nourishment, support and protection, gas exchange and production of several hormones and other mediators. Placental hormones are mainly secreted by the syncytiotrophoblast, in a highly and tightly regulated way. These hormones are important for pregnancy establishment and maintenance, exerting autocrine and paracrine effects that regulate decidualization, placental development, angiogenesis, endometrial receptivity, embryo implantation, immunotolerance and fetal development. In addition, because they are released into maternal circulation, the profile of their blood levels throughout pregnancy has been the target of intense research towards finding potential robust and reliable biomarkers to predict and diagnose pregnancy-associated complications. In fact, altered levels of these hormones have been associated with some pathologies, such as chromosomal anomalies or pre-eclampsia. This review proposes to revise and update the main pregnancy-related hormones, addressing their major characteristics, molecular targets, function throughout pregnancy, regulators of their expression and their potential clinical interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana A Costa
- Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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256
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Cortés ME, Carrera B, Rioseco H, Pablo del Río J, Vigil P. The Role of Kisspeptin in the Onset of Puberty and in the Ovulatory Mechanism: A Mini-review. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2015; 28:286-91. [PMID: 26231608 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpag.2014.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The onset of puberty has been a fascinating topic for reproductive endocrinologists for decades; however, its underlying physiological mechanisms have remained elusive until recently. The discovery and understanding of the effects exerted by the peptide hormone kisspeptin have shed light on this research area. This review is aimed to discuss the functions of kisspeptin, with special focus on its role in the onset of puberty and in the ovulatory mechanism. The points under discussion are (1) the characteristics of kisspeptin and its receptor, (2) the relevance of this hormone and its interaction with leptin in the onset of puberty, (3) the role of kisspeptin in the ovulatory mechanism based on its differential expression at hypothalamic nuclei, which is modulated by sex steroid hormones, and (4) the clinical relevance of kisspeptin and its antagonists in new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of various reproductive pathologies. All of this explains the revolution that kisspeptin has caused among researchers working in the field of gynecological endocrinology and reproductive biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel E Cortés
- Universidad Bernardo OHiggins, Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Biológicas, Santiago, Chile; Reproductive Health Research Institute, Biomedical Division, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Bárbara Carrera
- Reproductive Health Research Institute, Biomedical Division, Santiago, Chile
| | - Hernán Rioseco
- Reproductive Health Research Institute, Biomedical Division, Santiago, Chile
| | - Juan Pablo del Río
- Reproductive Health Research Institute, Biomedical Division, Santiago, Chile; Universidad de los Andes, Facultad de Medicina, Escuela de Medicina, Santiago, Chile
| | - Pilar Vigil
- Reproductive Health Research Institute, Biomedical Division, Santiago, Chile; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Vicerrectoría de Comunicaciones y Educación Continua, Santiago, Chile
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257
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Kanasaki H, Mijiddorj T, Sukhbaatar U, Oride A, Ishihara T, Yamagami I, Kyo S. Trichostatin A reduces GnRH mRNA expression with a concomitant increase in retinaldehyde dehydrogenase in GnRH-producing neurons. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2015; 413:113-9. [PMID: 26116234 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2015.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Revised: 06/12/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Trichostatin A (TSA) is a selective inhibitor of mammalian histone deacetylase and is widely used to modify the ability of DNA transcription factors to bind DNA within chromatin by interfering with histone deacetylation. In the GnRH-producing neuronal cell line GT1-7, TSA significantly reduced expression of GnRH mRNA. Kisspeptin, a known regulator of GnRH release, failed to increase GnRH mRNA expression and did not modify TSA-induced reduction of GnRH expression. TSA, but not kisspeptin, increased histone acetylation in whole-cell lysates and significantly stimulated the expression of retinaldehyde dehydrogenase (RALDH), a retinoic acid (RA)-synthesizing enzyme that is known to be involved in cell differentiation. In addition, treatment of the GT1-7 cells with RA dose-dependently inhibited the expression of GnRH mRNA. Whereas, TSA-induced reduction of GnRH mRNA was not modulated by treatment with the pan-RA receptor inverse agonist BMS493 or the RA metabolism inhibitor liarozole. Our current results suggest that the RALDH and RA might not be directly involved in the reduction of GnRH expression induced by TSA, however these substances could be a novel regulator of GnRH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruhiko Kanasaki
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Tselmeg Mijiddorj
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
| | - Unurjargal Sukhbaatar
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
| | - Aki Oride
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
| | - Tomoko Ishihara
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
| | - Ikuko Yamagami
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
| | - Satoru Kyo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
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258
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Fontenot GK, Wiehle RD, Podolski JS. Differential effects of isomers of clomiphene citrate on reproductive tissues in male mice. BJU Int 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/bju.13244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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259
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Luque-Ramírez M, Escobar-Morreale HF. Targets to treat androgen excess in polycystic ovary syndrome. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2015; 19:1545-60. [DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2015.1075511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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260
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Yamazaki R, Inokuchi M, Ishikawa S, Myojo S, Iwadare J, Bono Y, Mizumoto Y, Nakamura M, Takakura M, Iizuka T, Ohta T, Fujiwara H. Tamoxifen-induced ovarian hyperstimulation during premenopausal hormonal therapy for breast cancer in Japanese women. SPRINGERPLUS 2015; 4:425. [PMID: 26290804 PMCID: PMC4539309 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-015-1223-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Tamoxifen is an anti-estrogenic drug that is widely used for endocrine-dependent breast cancer as adjuvant hormonal therapy, and its use has been reported to be frequently associated with high levels of serum estradiol. Since the population of premenopausal women receiving tamoxifen therapy is growing in Japan, we retrospectively analyzed the incidence of ovarian hyperstimulation by tamoxifen therapy in Japanese women. Methods Eleven patients who received surgical therapy for endocrine-dependent breast cancer and showed high values of serum estradiol during post-operative tamoxifen therapy were recruited in this study and evaluated by examining the serum concentration of follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) and follicular development. Results The mean age, serum concentrations of estradiol and FSH, and follicular diameter were 41.3 years old, 1015.8 pg/mL, 11.8 mIU/mL, and 3.47 cm, respectively. In 6 cases, multiple follicular development was observed, while the other cases showed single follicular development with a mean serum estradiol level of 848.6 pg/mL and follicular diameter of 4.46 cm. There was no significant difference in age or FSH concentration between the two groups. The mean periods from the start of the single administration of tamoxifen to the initial detection of a high estradiol concentration was 716.5 days. Conclusions These findings indicate that tamoxifen could stimulate the ovarian function even after 2-year treatment. Since single and multiple follicular developments with large sizes were observed, dual mechanisms through the inhibition of both negative and positive feedback to the hypothalamic-pituitary-axis can be proposed to explain the adverse effects of tamoxifen on ovarian function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rena Yamazaki
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8641 Japan
| | - Masafumi Inokuchi
- Division of Cancer Medicine, Department of Breast Oncology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, 13-1 Takaramachi, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8641 Japan
| | - Satoko Ishikawa
- Division of Cancer Medicine, Department of Breast Oncology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, 13-1 Takaramachi, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8641 Japan
| | - Subaru Myojo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8641 Japan
| | - Junpei Iwadare
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8641 Japan
| | - Yukiko Bono
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8641 Japan
| | - Yasunari Mizumoto
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8641 Japan
| | - Mitsuhiro Nakamura
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8641 Japan
| | - Masahiro Takakura
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8641 Japan
| | - Takashi Iizuka
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8641 Japan
| | - Tetsuo Ohta
- Division of Cancer Medicine, Department of Breast Oncology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, 13-1 Takaramachi, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8641 Japan
| | - Hiroshi Fujiwara
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa, Ishikawa 920-8641 Japan
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261
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Oride A, Kanasaki H, Mijiddorj T, Sukhbaatar U, Ishihara T, Kyo S. Regulation of kisspeptin and gonadotropin-releasing hormone expression in rat placenta: study using primary cultures of rat placental cells. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2015; 13:90. [PMID: 26268437 PMCID: PMC4533763 DOI: 10.1186/s12958-015-0083-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and kisspeptin in the hypothalamus are thought to be crucial components of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and maintain reproductive function. These neuropeptides are also expressed in the placenta, where they may contribute to placental physiology. In this study, we examined how these peptides are regulated within the placenta. METHODS We used primary cultures of placental tissue from rats of 16-18 days gestation. After stimulation with estradiol, GnRH, kisspeptin, and neurokinin B (NKB), changes in placental GnRH, kisspeptin, and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) mRNA expression were evaluated by real-time quantitative RT-PCR analysis. RESULTS Immunocytochemical analysis showed that rat placental cells contained cells expressing kisspeptin or GnRH. GnRH and kisspeptin mRNA expression was significantly increased in placental cells in the presence of estradiol; NKB mRNA expression was also stimulated by estradiol. Stimulation of the cells with kisspeptin failed to stimulate GnRH mRNA expression. Conversely, both GnRH itself and NKB increased GnRH mRNA expression. Kisspeptin mRNA expression was not increased by kisspeptin itself; however, GnRH and NKB significantly increased kisspeptin mRNA expression. hCG expression was increased in the presence of estradiol. In addition, kisspeptin, GnRH, and NKB could stimulate the expression of hCG mRNA in placental cells. CONCLUSIONS Our experiments using primary cultures of rat placental cells showed that GnRH, kisspeptin, and NKB expression was enhanced by estradiol, and unlike in the hypothalamus, kisspeptin did not control the expression of GnRH in placental cells. NKB might be located upstream of kisspeptin and GnRH, and these neuropeptides might be involved in the induction of hCG expression in placental cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aki Oride
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University School of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane, 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Haruhiko Kanasaki
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University School of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane, 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Tselmeg Mijiddorj
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University School of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane, 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Unurjargal Sukhbaatar
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University School of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane, 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Tomoko Ishihara
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University School of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane, 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Satoru Kyo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shimane University School of Medicine, 89-1 Enya-cho, Izumo, Shimane, 693-8501, Japan.
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262
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Hoveyda HR, Fraser GL, Dutheuil G, El Bousmaqui M, Korac J, Lenoir F, Lapin A, Noël S. Optimization of Novel Antagonists to the Neurokinin-3 Receptor for the Treatment of Sex-Hormone Disorders (Part II). ACS Med Chem Lett 2015; 6:736-40. [PMID: 26191358 PMCID: PMC4499830 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.5b00117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
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Further lead optimization on N-acyl-triazolopiperazine antagonists to the neurokinin-3
receptor (NK3R) based on the concurrent improvement in
bioactivity and ligand lipophilic efficiency (LLE) is reported. Overall,
compound 3 (LLE > 6) emerged as the most efficacious
in castrated rat and monkey to lower plasma LH, and it displayed the
best off-target safety profile that led to its clinical candidate
nomination for the treatment of sex-hormone disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Julien Korac
- Euroscreen SA, 47 rue Adrienne Bolland, 6041 Gosselies, Belgium
| | - François Lenoir
- Euroscreen SA, 47 rue Adrienne Bolland, 6041 Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Alexey Lapin
- Euroscreen SA, 47 rue Adrienne Bolland, 6041 Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Sophie Noël
- Euroscreen SA, 47 rue Adrienne Bolland, 6041 Gosselies, Belgium
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Rehman R, Jamil Z, Fatima SS, Alam F. Silent Mutation in KISS1 and KISS1R and Unexplained Infertility. AVICENNA JOURNAL OF MEDICAL BIOCHEMISTRY 2015. [DOI: 10.17795/ajmb-30138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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264
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Jiang JH, He Z, Peng YL, Jin WD, Wang Z, Han RW, Chang M, Wang R. Kisspeptin-13 enhances memory and mitigates memory impairment induced by Aβ1-42 in mice novel object and object location recognition tasks. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2015; 123:187-95. [PMID: 26103138 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2015.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2015] [Revised: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Kisspeptin (KP), the endogenous ligand of GPR54, is a recently discovered neuropeptide shown to be involved in regulating reproductive system, anxiety-related behavior, locomotion, food intake, and suppression of metastasis across a range of cancers. KP is transcribed within the hippocampus, and GPR54 has been found in the amygdala and hippocampus, suggesting that KP might be involved in mediating learning and memory. However, the role of KP in cognition was largely unclear. Here, we investigated the role of KP-13, one of the endogenous active isoforms, in memory processes, and determined whether KP-13 could mitigate memory impairment induced by Aβ1-42 in mice, using novel object recognition (NOR) and object location recognition (OLR) tasks. Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) infusion of KP-13 (2μg) immediately after training not only facilitated memory formation, but also prolonged memory retention in both tasks. The memory-improving effects of KP-13 could be blocked by the GPR54 receptor antagonist, kisspeptin-234 (234), and GnRH receptors antagonist, Cetrorelix, suggesting pharmacological specificity. Then the memory-enhancing effects were also presented after infusion of KP-13 into the hippocampus. Moreover, we found that i.c.v. injection of KP-13 was able to reverse the memory impairment induced by Aβ1-42, which was inhibited by 234. To sum up, the results of our work indicate that KP-13 could facilitate memory formation and prolong memory retention through activation of the GPR54 and GnRH receptors, and suppress memory-impairing effect of Aβ1-42 through activation of the GPR54, suggesting that KP-13 may be a potential drug for enhancing memory and treating Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Jiang
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Z He
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Y L Peng
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - W D Jin
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Z Wang
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - R W Han
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330088, China
| | - M Chang
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China.
| | - R Wang
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Preclinical Study for New Drugs of Gansu Province, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China.
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265
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Zhu J, Xu XH, Knight GE, He C, Burnstock G, Xiang Z. A subpopulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons in the adult mouse forebrain is γ-Aminobutyric acidergic. J Neurosci Res 2015; 93:1611-21. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Revised: 05/30/2015] [Accepted: 06/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiao Zhu
- Department of Neurobiology; Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology; Ministry of Education; Second Military Medical University; Shanghai People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-hui Xu
- School of Life Science; Shanghai University; Shanghai People's Republic of China
| | - Gillian E. Knight
- Autonomic Neuroscience Centre; University College Medical School; London United Kingdom
| | - Cheng He
- Department of Neurobiology; Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology; Ministry of Education; Second Military Medical University; Shanghai People's Republic of China
| | - Geoffrey Burnstock
- Autonomic Neuroscience Centre; University College Medical School; London United Kingdom
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics; The University of Melbourne; Melbourne Australia
| | - Zhenghua Xiang
- Department of Neurobiology; Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology; Ministry of Education; Second Military Medical University; Shanghai People's Republic of China
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266
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Jiang J, He Z, Peng Y, Jin W, Mu J, Xue H, Wang Z, Chang M, Wang R. Effects of Phoenixin-14 on anxiolytic-like behavior in mice. Behav Brain Res 2015; 286:39-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2014] [Revised: 01/31/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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267
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Gawałek M, Sliwowska JH. Neuronal basis of reproductive dysfunctions associated with diet and alcohol: From the womb to adulthood. Reprod Biol 2015; 15:69-78. [PMID: 26051454 DOI: 10.1016/j.repbio.2015.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2015] [Revised: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 04/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The theory that individuals are born as tabula rasa and that their knowledge comes from experience and perception is no longer true. Studies suggest that experience is gained as early as in the mother's womb. Moreover, environmental stressors like alcohol or inadequate diet can affect physiological systems such as the hypothalmic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. The effects of these stressors can manifest as alterations in sexual development and adult reproductive functions. In this review, we consider and compare evidence from animal models and human studies demonstrating the role of environmental stressors (alcohol and under- or overnutrition) on the HPG axis. We review the role of alcohol and inadequate diet in prenatal reproductive system programming and consider specific candidate neurons in the adult hypothalamus through which reproductive function is being regulated. Finally, we review evidence from animal studies on the role that alcohol and diet play in fertility and reproductive disorders. We conclude that in order to better understand reproductive failure in animals and humans we need to consider in utero development and pay more attention to early life experience when searching for the origins of reproductive diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Gawałek
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Institute of Zoology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 71C, 60-625 Poznań, Poland.
| | - Joanna H Sliwowska
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Institute of Zoology, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 71C, 60-625 Poznań, Poland.
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268
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Han Y, Liu G, Jiang X, Ijaz N, Tesema B, Xie G. KISS1 can be used as a novel target for developing a DNA immunocastration vaccine in ram lambs. Vaccine 2015; 33:777-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.12.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2014] [Revised: 12/14/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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269
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Mutations in KISS1 are not responsible for idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in Chinese patients. J Assist Reprod Genet 2015; 32:375-8. [PMID: 25783047 DOI: 10.1007/s10815-014-0424-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate whether mutations in the KISS1 gene are present in 170 Chinese patients with idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (IHH). METHODS Mutational screening of the KISS1 gene was performed in 170 Chinese patients with IHH (133 male cases and 37 female cases) and 187 matched controls (94 males and 93 females). RESULTS Two known single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), c. 58G > A in exon 1 and c. 242C > G in exon 2, were identified. However, no difference of genotype and allelic frequencies between cases and controls was observed. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that mutations in the coding sequence of KISS1 are not common in patients with IHH in this Chinese population.
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270
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Soliman A, De Sanctis V, Elalaily R, Bedair S. Advances in pubertal growth and factors influencing it: Can we increase pubertal growth? Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2014; 18:S53-S62. [PMID: 25538878 PMCID: PMC4266869 DOI: 10.4103/2230-8210.145075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Puberty is a period of development characterized by partially concurrent changes which includes growth acceleration, alteration in body composition and appearance of secondary sex characteristics. Puberty is characterized by an acceleration and then deceleration in skeletal growth. The initiation, duration and amount of growth vary considerably during the growth spurt. Pubertal growth and biological maturation are dynamic processes regulated by a variety of genetic and environmental factors. Changes in skeletal maturation and bone mineral accretion concomitant with the stage of pubertal development constitute essential components in the evaluation of growth during this pubertal period. Genetic, endocrine and nutritional factors and ethnicity contribute variably to the amount of growth gained during this important period of rapid changes. Many studies investigated the possibility of increasing pubertal growth to gain taller final adult height in adolescents with idiopathic short stature (ISS). The pattern of pubertal growth, its relation to sex maturity rating and factors affecting them has been addressed in this review. The results of different trials to increase final adult height of adolescents using different hormones have been summarized. These data enables Endocrinologists to give in-depth explanations to patients and families about the efficacy and clinical significance as well as the safety of using these therapies in the treatment of adolescents with ISS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashraf Soliman
- Department of Pediatrics, Hamad Medical Center, Doha, Qatar
| | - Vincenzo De Sanctis
- Department of Pediatrics and Pediatric and Adolescent Outpatients Clinic, Quisisana Hospital, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Rania Elalaily
- Department of Primary Health Care, AbuNakhla Hospital, Doha, Qatar
| | - Said Bedair
- Department of Radiology AlKhor Hospital, Hamad Medical Center, Doha, Qatar
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271
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López-Doval S, Salgado R, Pereiro N, Moyano R, Lafuente A. Perfluorooctane sulfonate effects on the reproductive axis in adult male rats. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2014; 134:158-168. [PMID: 25171141 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2014.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Revised: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 07/12/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) is a neurotoxic agent and it can disrupt the endocrine system activity. This work was undertaken to evaluate the possible effects of PFOS exposure on the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis (HPT) in adult male rats, and to evaluate the possible morphological alterations induced by PFOS in the endocrine tissues of this axis. Adult male rats were orally treated with 0.5; 1.0; 3.0 and 6.0 mg of PFOS/kg/day for 28 days. After PFOS exposure, hypothalamic noradrenaline concentration increased in the anterior hypothalamus and in the median eminence, not changing in the mediobasal hypothalamus. PFOS treated rats presented a decrease of the gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) gene expression, increasing the mRNA levels of the luteinizing hormone (LH) in rats treated with all doses administered except with the dose of 6 mg/kg/day. PFOS also induced a raise of the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) gene expression in the animals exposed to 0.5 and 1.0 mg of PFOS/kg/day. After PFOS exposure, hypothalamic GnRH concentration was modified, LH and testosterone release was inhibited and FSH secretion was stimulated. Moreover, PFOS induced several histopathological alterations in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and testis. The results obtained in the present study suggest in general terms that PFOS can inhibit the physiological activity of the reproductive axis in adult male rats, which could be explained, at least in part, by the structural alterations showed in the animals exposed to this chemical: very dense chromatin, condensed ribosomes and a loss of the morphology in the hypothalamus; a degeneration of the gonadotrophic cells, as well as a loss and degeneration of the spermatozoids and a very marked edema in the testis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S López-Doval
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Sciences School, University of Vigo, Las Lagunas S/n, 32004 Ourense, Spain
| | - R Salgado
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Sciences School, University of Vigo, Las Lagunas S/n, 32004 Ourense, Spain
| | - N Pereiro
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Sciences School, University of Vigo, Las Lagunas S/n, 32004 Ourense, Spain
| | - R Moyano
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Legal and Forensic Medicine, Veterinary Faculty, University of Córdoba, Córdoba 14071, Spain
| | - A Lafuente
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Sciences School, University of Vigo, Las Lagunas S/n, 32004 Ourense, Spain.
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272
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Young SL. A "kiss" before conception: triggering ovulation with kisspeptin-54 may improve IVF. J Clin Invest 2014; 124:3277-8. [PMID: 25036703 DOI: 10.1172/jci77196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
A 30-year-old primigravid (G1P000) female with infertility secondary to her partner's oligospermia and her chronic anovulation presented 13 days after an oocyte retrieval for in vitro fertilization (IVF) with a positive home pregnancy test, abdominal distention, a 5-pound weight gain, nausea, shortness of breath, and reduced urinary frequency. Her IVF cycle included the usual cocktail for gonadotropin stimulation and was uncomplicated, except for excessively stimulated ovaries that led to a peak estradiol level of 6,000 pg/ml and the retrieval of 30 oocytes. Her past history was relevant only for anovulation due to polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), though her preprocedure body mass index was normal at 21 kg/m2. Pelvic ultrasound revealed abundant ascites and enlarged ovaries, at 8 cm average diameter. Serum human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) concentration was 200 mIU/ml; she was hemoconcentrated (hemoglobin 16 g/dl), with normal liver function and coagulation testing. An ultrasound guided, transvaginal paracentesis removed 4 liters of straw-colored fluid, resulting in significant short-term symptom relief.
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273
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Pharmaceutical options for triggering of final oocyte maturation in ART. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:580171. [PMID: 25133168 PMCID: PMC4123594 DOI: 10.1155/2014/580171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2014] [Revised: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 06/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Since the pioneering days of in vitro fertilization, hCG has been the gold standard to induce final follicular maturation. We herein reviewed different pharmaceutical options for triggering of final oocyte maturation in ART. The new upcoming agent seems to be GnRHa with its potential advantages over hCG trigger. GnRHa triggering elicits a surge of gonadotropins resembling the natural midcycle surge of gonadotropins, without the prolonged action of hCG, resulting in the retrieval of more mature oocytes and a significant reduction in or elimination of OHSS as compared to hCG triggering. The induction of final follicular maturation using GnRHa represents a paradigm shift in the ovulation triggering concept in ART and, thus, a way to develop a safer IVF procedure. Kisspeptins are key central regulators of the neuroendocrine mechanisms of human reproduction, who have been shown to effectively elicit an LH surge and to induce final oocyte maturation in IVF cycles. This new trigger concept may, therefore, offer a completely new, "natural" pharmacological option for ovulation induction. Whether kisspeptins will be the future agent to trigger ovulation remains to be further explored.
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274
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Marino M, Moriondo V, Vighi E, Pignatti E, Simoni M. Central hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: genetic complexity of a complex disease. Int J Endocrinol 2014; 2014:649154. [PMID: 25254043 PMCID: PMC4165873 DOI: 10.1155/2014/649154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Central hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CHH) is an emerging pathological condition frequently associated with overweight, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and midline defects. The genetic mechanisms involve mutations in at least twenty-four genes regulating GnRH neuronal migration, secretion, and activity. So far, the mechanisms underlying CHH, both in prepubertal and in adulthood onset forms, remain unknown in most of the cases. Indeed, all detected gene variants may explain a small proportion of the affected patients (43%), indicating that other genes or epigenetic mechanisms are involved in the onset of CHH. The aim of this review is to summarize the current knowledge on genetic background of CHH, organizing the large amount of data present in the literature in a clear and concise manner, to produce a useful guide available for researchers and clinicians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Marino
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, Via Pietro Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Giuseppe Campi 187, 41125 Modena, Italy
- *Marco Marino:
| | - Valeria Moriondo
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, Via Pietro Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Giuseppe Campi 187, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Eleonora Vighi
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, Via Pietro Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Giuseppe Campi 187, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Elisa Pignatti
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, Via Pietro Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Giuseppe Campi 187, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Manuela Simoni
- Unit of Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, NOCSAE, Via Pietro Giardini 1355, 41126 Modena, Italy
- Center for Genomic Research, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Giuseppe Campi 187, 41125 Modena, Italy
- Azienda USL of Modena, Via San Giovanni del Cantone 23, 41121 Modena, Italy
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