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Sastre M, Dewachter I, Rossner S, Bogdanovic N, Rosen E, Borghgraef P, Evert BO, Dumitrescu-Ozimek L, Thal DR, Landreth G, Walter J, Klockgether T, van Leuven F, Heneka MT. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs repress beta-secretase gene promoter activity by the activation of PPARgamma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:443-8. [PMID: 16407166 PMCID: PMC1326151 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0503839103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 291] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological evidence suggests that nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) decrease the risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Certain NSAIDs can activate the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma), which is a nuclear transcriptional regulator. Here we show that PPARgamma depletion potentiates beta-secretase [beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme (BACE1)] mRNA levels by increasing BACE1 gene promoter activity. Conversely, overexpression of PPARgamma, as well as NSAIDs and PPARgamma activators, reduced BACE1 gene promoter activity. These results suggested that PPARgamma could be a repressor of BACE1. We then identified a PPARgamma responsive element (PPRE) in the BACE1 gene promoter. Mutagenesis of the PPRE abolished the binding of PPARgamma to the PPRE and increased BACE1 gene promoter activity. Furthermore, proinflammatory cytokines decreased PPARgamma gene transcription, and this effect was supressed by NSAIDs. We also demonstrate that in vivo treatment with PPARgamma agonists increased PPARgamma and reduced BACE1 mRNA and intracellular beta-amyloid levels. Interestingly, brain extracts from AD patients showed decreased PPARgamma expression and binding to PPRE in the BACE1 gene promoter. Our data strongly support a major role of PPARgamma in the modulation of amyloid-beta generation by inflammation and suggest that the protective mechanism of NSAIDs in AD involves activation of PPARgamma and decreased BACE1 gene transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Sastre
- Department of Neurology, University of Bonn, Sigmund Freud Strasse 25, 53127 Bonn, Germany.
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252
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Melnikova T, Savonenko A, Wang Q, Liang X, Hand T, Wu L, Kaufmann WE, Vehmas A, Andreasson KI. Cycloxygenase-2 activity promotes cognitive deficits but not increased amyloid burden in a model of Alzheimer’s disease in a sex-dimorphic pattern. Neuroscience 2006; 141:1149-62. [PMID: 16753269 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2005] [Revised: 03/30/2006] [Accepted: 05/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Administration of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents reduces the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease in normal aging populations, an effect that may occur from inhibition of the cyclooxygenases, the rate-limiting enzymes in the formation of prostaglandins. In this study, we investigated whether increased activity of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), the inducible isoform of cyclooxygenase, potentiates disease progression in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. To study the functional effects of COX-2 activity, male and female bigenic mice (amyloid precursor protein with Swedish mutation [APPswe]-presenilin-1 protein with deletion of exon 9 [PS1dE9] and trigenic COX-2/APPswe-PS1dE9) were behaviorally tested +/-administration of the selective COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib. Behavioral testing included a three-trial Y maze that measures spatial working and recognition memories and an open field task that tested levels of hyperactivity. Overexpression of COX-2 in APPswe-PS1dE9 mice resulted in specific deficits in spatial working memory in female but not male mice. These sex-specific deficits were abolished by pharmacological inhibition of COX-2 activity. Importantly, COX-2-associated deficits were dependent on co-expression of all three transgenes since COX-2 single transgenic and APPswe-PS1dE9 bigenic mice showed normal memory. Quantification of amyloid plaque load and total Abeta 40 and 42 peptides did not reveal significant differences in trigenic versus bigenic mice treated with either vehicle or celecoxib. Taken together, these data indicate an interaction between the effects of COX-2 and Abeta peptides on cognition that occurs in a sex-specific manner in the absence of significant changes in amyloid burden. These findings suggest that pathological activation of COX-2 may potentiate the toxicity of Abeta peptides, particularly in females, without significantly affecting Abeta accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Melnikova
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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253
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Town T, Nikolic V, Tan J. The microglial "activation" continuum: from innate to adaptive responses. J Neuroinflammation 2005; 2:24. [PMID: 16259628 PMCID: PMC1298325 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-2-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 333] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2005] [Accepted: 10/31/2005] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are innate immune cells of myeloid origin that take up residence in the central nervous system (CNS) during embryogenesis. While classically regarded as macrophage-like cells, it is becoming increasingly clear that reactive microglia play more diverse roles in the CNS. Microglial "activation" is often used to refer to a single phenotype; however, in this review we consider that a continuum of microglial activation exists, with phagocytic response (innate activation) at one end and antigen presenting cell function (adaptive activation) at the other. Where activated microglia fall in this spectrum seems to be highly dependent on the type of stimulation provided. We begin by addressing the classical roles of peripheral innate immune cells including macrophages and dendritic cells, which seem to define the edges of this continuum. We then discuss various types of microglial stimulation, including Toll-like receptor engagement by pathogen-associated molecular patterns, microglial challenge with myelin epitopes or Alzheimer's β-amyloid in the presence or absence of CD40L co-stimulation, and Alzheimer disease "immunotherapy". Based on the wide spectrum of stimulus-specific microglial responses, we interpret these cells as immune cells that demonstrate remarkable plasticity following activation. This interpretation has relevance for neurodegenerative/neuroinflammatory diseases where reactive microglia play an etiological role; in particular viral/bacterial encephalitis, multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terrence Town
- Section of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 Cedar St., New Haven, CT 06520-8011, USA
- Neuroimmunology Laboratory, Silver Child Development Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, University of South Florida, 3515 E. Fletcher Ave., Tampa, FL 33613, USA
| | - Veljko Nikolic
- Neuroimmunology Laboratory, Silver Child Development Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, University of South Florida, 3515 E. Fletcher Ave., Tampa, FL 33613, USA
| | - Jun Tan
- Neuroimmunology Laboratory, Silver Child Development Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, University of South Florida, 3515 E. Fletcher Ave., Tampa, FL 33613, USA
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254
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Lindberg C, Selenica MLB, Westlind-Danielsson A, Schultzberg M. Beta-amyloid protein structure determines the nature of cytokine release from rat microglia. J Mol Neurosci 2005; 27:1-12. [PMID: 16055942 DOI: 10.1385/jmn:27:1:001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2004] [Accepted: 01/22/2005] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Activated microglia represent a major source of inflammatory factors in Alzheimer's disease and a possible source of cytotoxic factors. beta-Amyloid (Abeta) peptide, the predominant component in amyloid plaques, has been shown to activate microglia and stimulate their production of inflammatory factors. The present study was performed to analyze the responses of microglia to different forms of Abeta, with regard to release of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1alpha (IL-1alpha), IL-1beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), IL-6, and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), as well as the IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra). Primary cultures of microglia from rat neonatal cerebral cortex were incubated with freshly dissolved Abeta1-40 or Abeta1-42, Abeta1-40 fibrils, Abeta1-40 betaamy balls, or vehicle. Abeta1-40 fibrils did not significantly stimulate any of these cytokines. Freshly dissolved Abeta1-40 resulted in a marked increase in the release of IL-1beta, and freshly dissolved Abeta1-42 significantly stimulated both IL-1alpha and IFN-gamma secretion. The Abeta1-40 betaamy balls stimulated the secretion of IL-1alpha and IL-1beta. Incubation with Abeta peptides did not affect the secretion of IL-1ra, IL-6, or TNF-alpha. In the case of IL-1beta, the response is correlated with the presence of Abeta peptide as monomers and oligomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catharina Lindberg
- Neurotec Department, Division of Experimental Geriatrics, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, SE-141 86 Stockholm, Sweden.
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255
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Tang BL. Alzheimer's disease: channeling APP to non-amyloidogenic processing. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 331:375-8. [PMID: 15850769 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.03.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A good number of pharmacologic agents have over the years been touted as potentially beneficial in either preventing the onset or delay the progression of Alzheimer's disease. These include compounds such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins)) and flavonoids. The underlying mechanisms for the beneficial effect of these agents are by and large attributed to their ability to reduce beta-amyloid (Abeta) production and amyloid load in the brain, via inhibition of amyloidogenic gamma-secretase activity. Recent reports have now provided mechanistic insights as to how non-amyloidogenic processing might also be enhanced by these seemingly unrelated treatments. Intriguingly, this appears to involve the inhibition of the activity of small GTPase Rho and its effector, the Rho-associated kinase, ROCK. Dietary caloric restriction (CR) also enhances non-amyloidogenic processing of APP, and this may be part of a more general anti-aging effect of CR mediated by gene expression changes downstream of the activity of the histone deacetylase SIRT1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bor Luen Tang
- Department of Biochemistry, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore 117597, Singapore.
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256
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Aspirin for everyone older than 50? For. BMJ : BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL 2005; 330:1440-1. [PMID: 15961818 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.330.7505.1440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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257
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Pietrzik C, Behl C. Concepts for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: molecular mechanisms and clinical application. Int J Exp Pathol 2005; 86:173-85. [PMID: 15910551 PMCID: PMC2517414 DOI: 10.1111/j.0959-9673.2005.00435.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
To date, various strategies have been developed in order to prevent or to slow down the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Despite the medical need for an effective therapeutic treatment of AD, progress towards this goal is painstakingly slow. Although AD is the most common neurodegenerative disorder and a large amount of primary basic and clinical research has been performed already, it appears very difficult to identify appropriate targets, which would promise fast, effective and safe strategies to combat the disease onset and progression. In this review, we present some of clinically applied treatment options, which may improve AD symptoms for a short period but so far lack the ability to prevent or halt this devastating disease. Additionally, we summarize some of the experimental approaches in AD therapy, which might lead to the development of more promising drugs in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claus Pietrzik
- Department of Molecular Neurodegeneration, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Medical SchoolMainz, Germany
| | - Christian Behl
- Department of Molecular Neuroprotection and Aging Research, Institute for Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Medical SchoolMainz, Germany
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258
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Current awareness in geriatric psychiatry. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2005; 20:600-7. [PMID: 15997511 DOI: 10.1002/gps.1226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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259
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Shie FS, Breyer RM, Montine TJ. Microglia lacking E Prostanoid Receptor subtype 2 have enhanced Abeta phagocytosis yet lack Abeta-activated neurotoxicity. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2005; 166:1163-72. [PMID: 15793296 PMCID: PMC1602400 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)62336-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Experimental therapies for Alzheimer's disease (AD) are focused on enhanced clearance of neurotoxic Abeta peptides from brain. Microglia can be neuroprotective by phagocytosing Abeta; however, this comes at the cost of activated innate immunity that causes paracrine damage to neurons. Here, we show that ablation of E prostanoid receptor subtype 2 (EP2) significantly increased microglial-mediated clearance of Abeta peptides from AD brain sections and enhanced microglial Abeta phagocytosis in cell culture. The enhanced phagocytosis was PKC-dependent and was associated with elevated microglial secretion of the chemoattractant chemokines, macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha and macrophage chemoattractant protein-1. This suggested that microglial activation is negatively regulated by EP2 signaling through suppression of prophagocytic cytokine secretion. However, despite this enhancement of Abeta phagocytosis, lack of EP2 completely suppressed Abeta-activated microglia-mediated paracrine neurotoxicity. These data demonstrate that blockade of microglial EP2 is a highly desirable mechanism for AD therapy that can maximize neuroprotective actions while minimizing bystander damage to neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng-Shiun Shie
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Box 359645, Harborview Medical Center, 325 9th Ave., Seattle, WA 98104, USA.
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260
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Patel NS, Paris D, Mathura V, Quadros AN, Crawford FC, Mullan MJ. Inflammatory cytokine levels correlate with amyloid load in transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2005; 2:9. [PMID: 15762998 PMCID: PMC555557 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-2-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2005] [Accepted: 03/11/2005] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Inflammation is believed to play an important role in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and cytokine production is a key pathologic event in the progression of inflammatory cascades. The current study characterizes the cytokine expression profile in the brain of two transgenic mouse models of AD (TgAPPsw and PS1/APPsw) and explores the correlations between cytokine production and the level of soluble and insoluble forms of Abeta. METHODS: Organotypic brain slice cultures from 15-month-old mice (TgAPPsw, PS1/APPsw and control littermates) were established and multiple cytokine levels were analyzed using the Bio-plex multiple cytokine assay system. Soluble and insoluble forms of Abeta were quantified and Abeta-cytokine relationships were analyzed. RESULTS: Compared to control littermates, transgenic mice showed a significant increase in the following pro-inflammatory cytokines: TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-12p40, IL-1beta, IL-1alpha and GM-CSF. TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-1alpha and GM-CSF showed a sequential increase from control to TgAPPsw to PS1/APPsw suggesting that the amplitude of this cytokine response is dependent on brain Abeta levels, since PS1/APPsw mouse brains accumulate more Abeta than TgAPPsw mouse brains. Quantification of Abeta levels in the same slices showed a wide range of Abeta soluble:insoluble ratio values across TgAPPsw and PS1/APPsw brain slices. Abeta-cytokine correlations revealed significant relationships between Abeta1-40, 1-42 (both soluble and insoluble) and all the above cytokines that changed in the brain slices. CONCLUSION: Our data confirm that the brains of transgenic APPsw and PS1/APPsw mice are under an active inflammatory stress, and that the levels of particular cytokines may be directly related to the amount of soluble and insoluble Abeta present in the brain suggesting that pathological accumulation of Abeta is a key driver of the neuroinflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikunj S Patel
- Roskamp Institute, 2040 Whitfield Avenue, Sarasota, FL34243, USA
| | - Daniel Paris
- Roskamp Institute, 2040 Whitfield Avenue, Sarasota, FL34243, USA
| | | | - Amita N Quadros
- Roskamp Institute, 2040 Whitfield Avenue, Sarasota, FL34243, USA
| | - Fiona C Crawford
- Roskamp Institute, 2040 Whitfield Avenue, Sarasota, FL34243, USA
| | - Michael J Mullan
- Roskamp Institute, 2040 Whitfield Avenue, Sarasota, FL34243, USA
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261
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Abstract
High serum cholesterol level has been shown as one of the risk factors for Alzheimer's disease (AD), and epidemiological studies indicate that treatment with cholesterol-lowering substances, statins, may provide protection against AD. An acute-phase reaction and inflammation, with increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines, are well known in the AD brain. Notably, there is evidence for antiinflammatory activities of statins, such as reduction in proinflammatory cytokines. Consequently, it is of interest to analyze the effects of statins on microglia, the main source of inflammatory factors in the brain, such as in AD. The aims of this study were to determine the effects of statins (atorvastatin and simvastatin) on microglial cells with regard to the secretion of the inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) and cell viability after activation of the cells with bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) or beta-amyloid1-40 (Abeta1-40) and in unstimulated cells. Cells of the human microglial cell line CHME-3 and primary cultures of rat neonatal cortical microglia were used. Incubation with LPS or Abeta1-40 induced secretion of IL-6, and Abeta1-40, but not LPS, reduced cell viability. Both atorvastatin and simvastatin reduced the basal secretion of IL-6 and the cell viability of the microglia, but only atorvastatin reduced LPS- and Abeta1-40-induced IL-6 secretion. Both statins potentiated the Abeta1-40-induced reduction in cell viability. The data indicate the importance of also considering the microglial responses to statins in evaluation of their effects in AD and other neurodegenerative disorders with an inflammatory component.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catharina Lindberg
- Karolinska Institutet, Neurotec Department, Division of Experimental Geriatrics, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden.
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