The history of the Drosophila TRP channel: the birth of a new channel superfamily

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

Mechanisms and Mitochondrial Redox Signaling in Photobiomodulation

Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the use of red or near-infrared light at low power densities to produce a beneficial effect on cells or tissues. PBM therapy is used to reduce pain, inflammation, edema, and to regenerate damaged tissues such as wounds, bones, and tendons. The primary site of light absorption in mammalian cells has been identified as the mitochondria and, more specifically, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO). It is hypothesized that inhibitory nitric oxide can be dissociated from CCO, thus restoring electron transport and increasing mitochondrial membrane potential. Another mechanism involves activation of light or heat-gated ion channels. This review will cover the redox signaling that occurs in PBM and examine the difference between healthy and stressed cells, where PBM can have apparently opposite effects. PBM has a marked effect on stem cells, and this is proposed to operate via mitochondrial redox signaling. PBM can act as a preconditioning regimen and can interact with exercise on muscles.

TRPC5 is required for the NO-dependent increase in dendritic Ca2+ and GABA release from chick retinal amacrine cells

GABAergic signaling from amacrine cells (ACs) is a fundamental aspect of visual signal processing in the inner retina. We have previously shown that nitric oxide (NO) can elicit release of GABA independently from activation of voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels in cultured retinal ACs. This voltage-independent quantal GABA release relies on a Ca²⁺ influx mechanism with pharmacological characteristics consistent with the involvement of the transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels TRPC4 and/or TRPC5. To determine the identity of these channels, we evaluated the ability of NO to elevate dendritic Ca²⁺ and to stimulate GABA release from cultured ACs under conditions known to alter the function of TRPC4 and 5. We found that these effects of NO are phospholipase C dependent, have a biphasic dependence on La³⁺, and are unaffected by moderate concentrations of the TRPC4-selective antagonist ML204. Together, these results suggest that NO promotes GABA release by activating TRPC5 channels in AC dendrites. To confirm a role for TRPC5, we knocked down the expression of TRPC5 using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene knockdown and found that both the NO-dependent Ca²⁺ elevations and increase in GABA release are dependent on the expression of TRPC5. These results demonstrate a novel NO-dependent mechanism for regulating neurotransmitter output from retinal ACs. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Elucidating the mechanisms regulating GABAergic synaptic transmission in the inner retina is key to understanding the flexibility of retinal ganglion cell output. Here, we demonstrate that nitric oxide (NO) can activate a transient receptor potential canonical 5 (TRPC5)-mediated Ca²⁺ influx, which is sufficient to drive vesicular GABA release from retinal amacrine cells. This NO-dependent mechanism can bypass the need for depolarization and may have an important role in processing the visual signal by enhancing retinal amacrine cell GABAergic inhibitory output.

Ectopic Expression of Mouse Melanopsin in Drosophila Photoreceptors Reveals Fast Response Kinetics and Persistent Dark Excitation

The intrinsically photosensitive M1 retinal ganglion cells (ipRGC) initiate non-image-forming light-dependent activities and express the melanopsin (OPN4) photopigment. Several features of ipRGC photosensitivity are characteristic of fly photoreceptors. However, the light response kinetics of ipRGC is much slower due to unknown reasons. Here we used transgenic Drosophila, in which the mouse OPN4 replaced the native Rh1 photopigment of Drosophila R1-6 photoreceptors, resulting in deformed rhabdomeric structure. Immunocytochemistry revealed OPN4 expression at the base of the rhabdomeres, mainly at the rhabdomeral stalk. Measurements of the early receptor current, a linear manifestation of photopigment activation, indicated large expression of OPN4 in the plasma membrane. Comparing the early receptor current amplitude and action spectra between WT and the Opn4-expressing Drosophila further indicated that large quantities of a blue absorbing photopigment were expressed, having a dark stable blue intermediate state. Strikingly, the light-induced current of the Opn4-expressing fly photoreceptors was ∼40-fold faster than that of ipRGC. Furthermore, an intense white flash induced a small amplitude prolonged dark current composed of discrete unitary currents similar to the Drosophila single photon responses. The induction of prolonged dark currents by intense blue light could be suppressed by a following intense green light, suggesting induction and suppression of prolonged depolarizing afterpotential. This is the first demonstration of heterologous functional expression of mammalian OPN4 in the genetically emendable Drosophila photoreceptors. Moreover, the fast OPN4-activated ionic current of Drosophila photoreceptors relative to that of mouse ipRGC, indicates that the slow light response of ipRGC does not arise from an intrinsic property of melanopsin.

Activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 by lipoxygenase metabolites depends on PKC phosphorylation

Peripheral neuronal activation by inflammatory mediators is a multifaceted physiological response that involves a multitude of regulated cellular functions. One key pathway that has been shown to be involved in inflammatory pain is Gq/GPCR, whose activation by inflammatory mediators is followed by the regulated response of the cation channel transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1). However, the mechanism that underlies TRPV1 activation downstream of the Gq/GPCR pathway has yet to be fully defined. In this study, we employ pharmacological and molecular biology tools to dissect this activation mechanism via perforated-patch recordings and calcium imaging of both neurons and a heterologous system. We showed that TRPV1 activity downstream of Gq/GPCR activation only produced a subdued current, which was noticeably different from the robust current that is typical of TRPV1 activation by exogenous stimuli. Moreover, we specifically demonstrated that 2 pathways downstream of Gq/GPCR signaling, namely endovanilloid production by lipoxygenases and channel phosphorylation by PKC, converge on TRPV1 to evoke a tightly regulated response. Of importance, we show that only when both pathways are acting on TRPV1 is the inflammatory-mediated response achieved. We propose that the requirement of multiple signaling events allows subdued TRPV1 activation to evoke regulated neuronal response during inflammation.-Kumar R., Hazan, A., Geron, M., Steinberg, R., Livni, L., Matzner, H., Priel, A. Activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 by lipoxygenase metabolites depends on PKC phosphorylation.

Nociceptive TRP Channels: Sensory Detectors and Transducers in Multiple Pain Pathologies

Specialized receptors belonging to the transient receptor potential (TRP) family of ligand-gated ion channels constitute the critical detectors and transducers of pain-causing stimuli. Nociceptive TRP channels are predominantly expressed by distinct subsets of sensory neurons of the peripheral nervous system. Several of these TRP channels are also expressed in neurons of the central nervous system, and in non-neuronal cells that communicate with sensory nerves. Nociceptive TRPs are activated by specific physico-chemical stimuli to provide the excitatory trigger in neurons. In addition, decades of research has identified a large number of immune and neuromodulators as mediators of nociceptive TRP channel activation during injury, inflammatory and other pathological conditions. These findings have led to aggressive targeting of TRP channels for the development of new-generation analgesics. This review summarizes the complex activation and/or modulation of nociceptive TRP channels under pathophysiological conditions, and how these changes underlie acute and chronic pain conditions. Furthermore, development of small-molecule antagonists for several TRP channels as analgesics, and the positive and negative outcomes of these drugs in clinical trials are discussed. Understanding the diverse functional and modulatory properties of nociceptive TRP channels is critical to function-based drug targeting for the development of evidence-based and efficacious new generation analgesics.

Neuronal TRPV1 activation regulates alveolar bone resorption by suppressing osteoclastogenesis via CGRP

The transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channel is abundantly expressed in peripheral sensory neurons where it acts as an important polymodal cellular sensor for heat, acidic pH, capsaicin, and other noxious stimuli. The oral cavity is densely innervated by afferent sensory neurons and is a highly specialized organ that protects against infections as well as physical, chemical, and thermal stresses in its capacity as the first part of the digestive system. While the function of TRPV1 in sensory neurons has been intensively studied in other organs, its physiological role in periodontal tissues is unclear. In this study we found that Trpv1^−/− mice developed severe bone loss in an experimental model of periodontitis. Chemical ablation of TRPV1-expressing sensory neurons recapitulated the phenotype of Trpv1^−/− mice, suggesting a functional link between neuronal TRPV1 signaling and periodontal bone loss. TRPV1 activation in gingival nerves induced production of the neuropeptide, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), and CGRP treatment inhibited osteoclastogenesis in vitro. Oral administration of the TRPV1 agonist, capsaicin, suppressed ligature-induced bone loss in mice with fewer tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive cells in alveolar bone. These results suggest that neuronal TRPV1 signaling in periodontal tissue is crucial for the regulation of osteoclastogenesis via the neuropeptide CGRP.

TRPing on the pore phenomenon: what do we know about transient receptor potential ion channel-related pore dilation up to now?

Ion channels allow for rapid ion diffusion through the plasma membrane. In some conditions, ion channels induce changes in the critical plasma membrane permeability that permit 900-Da solutes to enter cells. This process is known as the pore phenomenon. Some transient receptor potential (TRP) channel subtypes have been highlighted such as the P2X7 receptor, plasma membrane VDAC-1 channel, and pannexin hemichannels. The TRP ion channels are considered multimodal transducers that respond to several kinds of stimuli. In addition, many TRP channel subtypes are involved in physiological and pathophysiological processes such as inflammation, pain, and cancer. The TRPA1, TRPM8, and TRPV1-4 subtypes have been shown to promote large-molecular-weight solute uptake, including impermeable fluorescent dyes, QX-314 hydrophilic lidocaine derivative, gabapentin, and antineoplastic drugs. This review discusses the current knowledge of TRP-associated pores and encourages scientists to study their features and explore them as novel therapeutic tools.

Second Messenger-Operated Calcium Entry Through TRPC6

Canonical transient receptor potential 6 (TRPC6) proteins assemble into heteromultimeric structures forming non-selective cation channels. In addition, many TRPC6-interacting proteins have been identified like some enzymes, channels, pumps, cytoskeleton-associated proteins, immunophilins, or cholesterol-binding proteins, indicating that TRPC6 are engaged into macromolecular complexes. Depending on the cell type and the experimental conditions used, TRPC6 activity has been reported to be controlled by diverse modalities. For instance, the second messenger diacylglycerol, store-depletion, the plant extract hyperforin or H2O2 have all been shown to trigger the opening of TRPC6 channels. A well-characterized consequence of TRPC6 activation is the elevation of the cytosolic concentration of Ca(2+). This latter response can reflect the entry of Ca(2+) through open TRPC6 channels but it can also be due to the Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger (operating in its reverse mode) or voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels (recruited in response to a TRPC6-mediated depolarization). Although TRPC6 controls a diverse array of biological functions in many tissues and cell types, its pathophysiological functions are far from being fully understood. This chapter covers some key features of TRPC6, with a special emphasis on their biological significance in kidney and blood cells.

TRP channels: a missing bond in the entrainment mechanism of peripheral clocks throughout evolution

Circadian rhythm may be understood as a temporal organization that works to orchestrate physiological processes and behavior in a period of approximately 24 h. Because such temporal organization has evolved in the presence of predictable environmental clues, such as day length, tides, seasons, and temperature, the organism has confronted the natural selection in highly precise intervals of opportunities and risks, generating temporal programs and resetting mechanisms, which are well conserved among different taxa of animals. The present review brings some evidence of how these programs may have co-evolved in systems able to deal with 2 or more environmental clues, and how they similarly function in different group of animals, stressing how important temperature and light were to establish the temporal organizations. For example, melanopsin and rhodopsin, photopigments present respectively in circadian and visual photoreceptors, are required for temperature discrimination in Drosophila melanogaster. These pigments may signal light and temperature via activation of cationic membrane channel, named transient-receptor potential channel (TRP). In fact, TRPs have been suggested to function as thermal sensor for various groups of animals. Another example is the clock machinery at the molecular level. A set of very-well conserved proteins, known as clock proteins, function as transcription factors in positive and negative auto-regulatory loops generating circadian changes of their expression, and of clock-controlled genes. Similar molecular machinery is present in organisms as diverse as cyanobacteria (Synechococcus), fungi (Neurospora), insects (Drosophila), and vertebrates including humans.

Ocular transient receptor potential channel function in health and disease

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels sense and transduce environmental stimuli into Ca(2+) transients that in turn induce responses essential for cell function and adaptation. These non-selective channels with variable Ca(2+) selectivity are grouped into seven different subfamilies containing 28 subtypes based on differences in amino acid sequence homology. Many of these subtypes are expressed in the eye on both neuronal and non-neuronal cells where they affect a host of stress-induced regulatory responses essential for normal vision maintenance. This article reviews our current knowledge about the expression, function and regulation of TRPs in different eye tissues. We also describe how under certain conditions TRP activation can induce responses that are maladaptive to ocular function. Furthermore, the possibility of an association between TRP mutations and disease is considered. These findings contribute to evidence suggesting that drug targeting TRP channels may be of therapeutic benefit in a clinical setting. We point out issues that must be more extensively addressed before it will be possible to decide with certainty that this is a realistic endeavor. Another possible upshot of future studies is that disease process progression can be better evaluated by profiling changes in tissue specific functional TRP subtype activity as well as their gene and protein expression.

Transient receptor potential channels in the vasculature

The mammalian genome encodes 28 distinct members of the transient receptor potential (TRP) superfamily of cation channels, which exhibit varying degrees of selectivity for different ionic species. Multiple TRP channels are present in all cells and are involved in diverse aspects of cellular function, including sensory perception and signal transduction. Notably, TRP channels are involved in regulating vascular function and pathophysiology, the focus of this review. TRP channels in vascular smooth muscle cells participate in regulating contractility and proliferation, whereas endothelial TRP channel activity is an important contributor to endothelium-dependent vasodilation, vascular wall permeability, and angiogenesis. TRP channels are also present in perivascular sensory neurons and astrocytic endfeet proximal to cerebral arterioles, where they participate in the regulation of vascular tone. Almost all of these functions are mediated by changes in global intracellular Ca(2+) levels or subcellular Ca(2+) signaling events. In addition to directly mediating Ca(2+) entry, TRP channels influence intracellular Ca(2+) dynamics through membrane depolarization associated with the influx of cations or through receptor- or store-operated mechanisms. Dysregulation of TRP channels is associated with vascular-related pathologies, including hypertension, neointimal injury, ischemia-reperfusion injury, pulmonary edema, and neurogenic inflammation. In this review, we briefly consider general aspects of TRP channel biology and provide an in-depth discussion of the functions of TRP channels in vascular smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, and perivascular cells under normal and pathophysiological conditions.

Sensory TRP channels: the key transducers of nociception and pain

Peripheral detection of nociceptive and painful stimuli by sensory neurons involves a complex repertoire of molecular detectors and/or transducers on distinct subsets of nerve fibers. The majority of such molecular detectors/transducers belong to the transient receptor potential (TRP) family of cation channels, which comprise both specific receptors for distinct nociceptive stimuli, as well as for multiple stimuli. This chapter discusses the classification, distribution, and functional properties of individual TRP channel types that have been implicated in various nociceptive and/or painful conditions.

Transient receptor potential channels and itch: how deep should we scratch?

Over the past 30 years, transient receptor potential (TRP) channels have evolved from a somewhat obscure observation on how fruit flies detect light to become the center of drug discovery efforts, triggering a heated debate about their potential as targets for therapeutic applications in humans. In this review, we describe our current understanding of the diverse mechanism of action of TRP channels in the itch pathway from the skin to the brain with focus on the peripheral detection of stimuli that elicit the desire to scratch and spinal itch processing and sensitization. We predict that the compelling basic research findings on TRP channels and pruritus will be translated into the development of novel, clinically useful itch medications.

Modulation of innate and learned sexual behaviors by the TRP channel Painless expressed in the fruit fly brain: behavioral genetic analysis and its implications

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels have attracted considerable attention because of their vital roles in primary sensory neurons, mediating responses to a wide variety of external environmental stimuli. However, much less is known about how TRP channels in the brain respond to intrinsic signals and are involved in neurophysiological processes that control complex behaviors. Painless (Pain) is the Drosophila TRP channel that was initially identified as a molecular sensor responsible for detecting noxious thermal and mechanical stimuli. Here, we review recent behavioral genetic studies demonstrating that Pain expressed in the brain plays a critical role in both innate and learned aspects of sexual behaviors. Several members of the TRP channel superfamily play evolutionarily conserved roles in sensory neurons as well as in other peripheral tissues. It is thus expected that brain TRP channels in vertebrates and invertebrates would have some common physiological functions. Studies of Pain in the Drosophila brain using a unique combination of genetics and physiological techniques should provide valuable insights into the fundamental principles concerning TRP channels expressed in the vertebrate and invertebrate brains.

Morphological and physiological characteristics of dermal photoreceptors in Lymnaea stagnalis

Dermal photoreceptors located in the mantle of Lymnaea stagnalis were histologically and physiologically characterized. Our previous study demonstrated that the shadow response from dermal photoreceptors induces the whole-body withdrawal response. Through the interneuron, RPeD11, we detected that the light-off response indirectly originated from a dermal photoreceptor. Previous observations, based on behavioral pharmacology, revealed that cyclic guanosine monophosphate acts as a second messenger in the dermal photoreceptor. Furthermore, gastropods possess dermal photoreceptors containing rhodopsin, as a photopigment, and another photo-sensitive protein, arrestin, responsible for terminating the light response. Thus, we chose three antibodies, anti-cGMP, anti-rhodopsin, and anti-β-arrestin, to identify the dermal photoreceptor molecules in Lymnaea mantle. Extracellular recording, using a suction electrode on the mantle, revealed a light off-response from the right parietal nerve. Overlapping structures, positive against each of the antibodies, were also observed. Numerous round, granular particles of 3-47 μm in diameter with one nucleus were distributed around pneumostome and/or inside the mantle. The cells surrounding the pneumostome area, located 10 μm beneath the surface, tended to have smaller cell soma ranging from 3 to 25 μm in diameter, while cells located in other areas were distributed uniformly inside the mantle, with a larger diameter ranging from 12 to 47 μm. The histological examination using back-filing Lucifer Yellow staining of the right parietal nerve with the three dermal photoreceptor antibodies confirmed that these overlapping-stained structures were dermal photoreceptors in Lymnaea.

PLC-mediated PI(4,5)P2 hydrolysis regulates activation and inactivation of TRPC6/7 channels

Transient receptor potential classical (or canonical) (TRPC)3, TRPC6, and TRPC7 are a subfamily of TRPC channels activated by diacylglycerol (DAG) produced through the hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2) by phospholipase C (PLC). PI(4,5)P2 depletion by a heterologously expressed phosphatase inhibits TRPC3, TRPC6, and TRPC7 activity independently of DAG; however, the physiological role of PI(4,5)P2 reduction on channel activity remains unclear. We used Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) to measure PI(4,5)P2 or DAG dynamics concurrently with TRPC6 or TRPC7 currents after agonist stimulation of receptors that couple to Gq and thereby activate PLC. Measurements made at different levels of receptor activation revealed a correlation between the kinetics of PI(4,5)P2 reduction and those of receptor-operated TRPC6 and TRPC7 current activation and inactivation. In contrast, DAG production correlated with channel activation but not inactivation; moreover, the time course of channel inactivation was unchanged in protein kinase C-insensitive mutants. These results suggest that inactivation of receptor-operated TRPC currents is primarily mediated by the dissociation of PI(4,5)P2. We determined the functional dissociation constant of PI(4,5)P2 to TRPC channels using FRET of the PLCδ Pleckstrin homology domain (PHd), which binds PI(4,5)P2, and used this constant to fit our experimental data to a model in which channel gating is controlled by PI(4,5)P2 and DAG. This model predicted similar FRET dynamics of the PHd to measured FRET in either human embryonic kidney cells or smooth muscle cells, whereas a model lacking PI(4,5)P2 regulation failed to reproduce the experimental data, confirming the inhibitory role of PI(4,5)P2 depletion on TRPC currents. Our model also explains various PLC-dependent characteristics of channel activity, including limitation of maximum open probability, shortening of the peak time, and the bell-shaped response of total current. In conclusion, our studies demonstrate a fundamental role for PI(4,5)P2 in regulating TRPC6 and TRPC7 activity triggered by PLC-coupled receptor stimulation.

Ion channel TRPV1-dependent activation of PTP1B suppresses EGFR-associated intestinal tumorigenesis

The intestinal epithelium has a high rate of turnover, and dysregulation of pathways that regulate regeneration can lead to tumor development; however, the negative regulators of oncogenic events in the intestinal epithelium are not fully understood. Here we identified a feedback loop between the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), a known mediator of proliferation, and the transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily V, member 1 (TRPV1), in intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). We found that TRPV1 was expressed by IECs and was intrinsically activated upon EGFR stimulation. Subsequently, TRPV1 activation inhibited EGFR-induced epithelial cell proliferation via activation of Ca2+/calpain and resulting activation of protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B). In a murine model of multiple intestinal neoplasia (Apc(Min/+) mice), TRPV1 deficiency increased adenoma formation, and treatment of these animals with an EGFR kinase inhibitor reversed protumorigenic phenotypes, supporting a functional association between TRPV1 and EGFR signaling in IECs. Administration of a TRPV1 agonist suppressed intestinal tumorigenesis in Apc(Min/+) mice, similar to--as well as in conjunction with--a cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitor, which suggests that targeting both TRPV1 and COX-2 has potential as a therapeutic approach for tumor prevention. Our findings implicate TRPV1 as a regulator of growth factor signaling in the intestinal epithelium through activation of PTP1B and subsequent suppression of intestinal tumorigenesis.