Facts, rules, and procedures in normal calculation: evidence from multiple single-patient studies of impaired arithmetic fact retrieval

This article presents results from multiple single-case studies of brain-damaged patients with impairments in retrieval of arithmetic facts (i.e., "table" facts such as 8 x 7 = 56). The results provide a basis for exploring the types of knowledge implicated in simple arithmetic performance, the internal representations for the various knowledge types, the processes operating upon these representations, and the ways in which the representations or processes may be disrupted by brain damage.

Peer reputation in middle childhood as a predictor of adaptation in adolescence: a seven-year follow-up

This investigation examines the predictive significance of peer reputation in elementary school for the quality of adaptation in adolescence. A normative sample (N = 207) of third to sixth graders was administered the Revised Class Play (RCP). Each received 3 scores (Sociability-Leadership, Aggression-Disruption, and Sensitivity-Isolation). 7 years later, 88% of these children and their parents participated in a questionnaire follow-up study utilizing a broad range of adolescent outcome measures (e.g., social and athletic competence, academic performance, behavioral symptoms, well-being). The 3 RCP scores were significantly related to both adolescent competence and psychopathology, supporting the predictive validity of the RCP as well as the continuity of general adaptation. Each dimension of peer reputation had a different pattern of prediction depending on the outcome criteria under consideration, suggesting the importance of a multidimensional approach to peer reputation. Positive peer reputation proved to be an important predictor of later adjustment. Sex differences were examined; results suggested somewhat different patterns of prediction for boys and girls, especially for the sensitive-isolated dimension.

Rhythmic organization of neonatal heart rate and its relation to atypical fetal growth

The rhythmic organization underlying long-term heart rate variability was examined in 36 newborn infants. Heart rate was registered every 30 s for 2 continuous hr while infants rested in a temperature-controlled isolette. Spectrum analysis of the time-series of the 240 observations detected rhythmically organized changes in the heart rates of 33 of the 36 infants. Thirty of the 33 infants showed a basic rhythm at 1.5 +/- .5 cycles per hr (one cycle every 30 to 60 min). While 9 infants showed this single cycle in behavioral activity, 24 infants showed additional cycles at a wide range of faster frequencies. Infants with signs of atypical fetal growth less often showed evidence of these multiple cycles, had reliably fewer cycles in heart rate, and had a marginally lower power in their basic cycle than infants with typical patterns of fetal growth. Infants with multiple cycles in the power spectra, independent of fetal growth group, were more often observed in Alert and Active Alert behavioral states and less often in Active Sleep than comparison infants. Results indicate that 1) heart rates of newborn infants show evidence of the 30- to 60-min cycle characteristic of the Basic Rest-Activity Cycle found in other behaviors, and 2) the complexity of behavioral rhythms may be affected by prenatal malnutrition. Viewed within a dynamical systems approach to development, results suggest that the complexity of rhythms in behavior may reflect the complexity of behavioral organization.

Obesity and socioeconomic status: a framework for examining relationships between physical and social variables

Fatness and obesity are body characteristics which are both ascribed and achieved for adults. Socioeconomic status (SES) is the ranking of individuals within complex societies. In traditional societies a direct relationship between SES and fatness exists, while in modern societies there is an inverse association between SES and obesity for adult women but mixed patterns for other age/sex groups. A framework recognizing the difference between variables on the physical and social level of analysis needs to be used to examine the relationship between fatness (a physical variable) and SES (a social variable). Different mechanisms are involved in the causal pathways where SES influences obesity and obesity influences SES. SES influences obesity by education, income, and occupation causing variations in behaviors which change energy consumption, energy expenditure and metabolism. Obesity influences SES when the perception of obesity is interpreted through prejudiced beliefs, with subsequent stigmatization and discrimination limiting access to higher SES roles.

Verbal fluency and the measurement of future-oriented goals and hopes: comparison of questionnaire and interview data

A total of 111 adolescents were asked about their future goals and hopes either in interviews or by questionnaire. Analysis showed that the total number of goals/hopes was influenced by the subjects' verbal fluency on the questionnaires but not in the interviews.

Discounting in preschoolers: effect of type of reward agent

The effect of type of reward agent on children's discounting was examined. In Study 1, 49 preschool children were told two stories illustrated with small dolls and toys. Subjects discounted intrinsic interest in toy A when a "big, mean brother" told a sibling that if he played with toy A he could play with toy B. Discounting did not appear when the reward agent in the story was the child's mother, which is the typical outcome in previous research with young children. Studies 2 and 3 suggested that the combination of a negative valence and a particular social role/status accounted for the effect of the big, mean brother of Study 1. More specifically, neither a "big brother" nor a "mean mother" as reward agents elicited a significant amount of discounting. The results suggest that social knowledge guides the application of the discounting schema.

Marital disharmony and children's behaviour problems: aspects of a poor marriage that affect children adversely

The aim of this study was to investigate the elements of the parental marital relationship which put children at risk for behavioural and emotional problems. Data from 119 families from the general population with a child aged between 9 and 12 years were analysed for the present study. The relationship between children's emotional and behavioural problems and overt parental conflict, covert tension between parents and discrepancy on child-rearing practices was assessed. Overt parental conflict was found to relate most strongly to children's emotional and behavioural problems using mothers', fathers' and children's accounts of the children's symptoms and after controlling for other aspects of marital disharmony. Aspects of the parent-child relationship were hypothesized as mediating variables in the relationship between parental conflict and children's emotional and behavioural problems, but the data did not support this hypothesis.

Entertainment Manna: Does Television Viewing Lead to Appetitive Helplessness?

A link between passivity and television viewing has long been part of the public discourse about television. Despite this, both cognitive and psychophysiological studies of viewing have tended to dismiss such a link. The possibility that the basis of the persistent public perceptions lies in motivational rather than attentional or psychophysiological mechanisms is explored. Starting with the observation that, regardless of the content, television viewing involves noncontingent reinforcement, reviewed research links television viewing and a range of helplessness outcomes. Three specific hypotheses which derive from helplessness theory are developed to stimulate further consideration of the issue.

Observations of parent reactions to sex-stereotyped behaviors: age and sex effects

To examine differential socialization of boys and girls by mothers and fathers, home observations were completed for families of 92 12-month-old children, 82 18-month-old children, and 172 5-year-old children. Mothers gave more instructions and directions than did fathers, while fathers spent more time in positive play interaction. Differences in parents' reactions to 12- and 18-month boys and girls were as expected, with the exception that boys received more negative comment for communication attempts than did girls. The suggestion in the literature that fathers would be more involved in sex typing than mothers was not confirmed in this study. The only 2 significant sex-of-parent x sex-of-child effects occurred at 18 months; fathers gave fewer positive reactions to boys engaging in female-typical toy play, and mothers gave more instruction to girls when they attempted to communicate. We argue that the second year of life is the time when children are learning many new skills and when parents are still experimenting with parenting styles and may well use stereotypical responses when unsure of themselves.

Factors affecting relationships of Turkish adolescents with parents and same-sex friends

The present study attempted to investigate the differences between Turkish late adolescents' relationships with their parents and friends by using Armsden and Greenberg's (1987) scales for measuring attachment. In addition, an attempt at determining predictors of different aspects of attachment was made. The findings were that (a) similar dimensions of attachment emerged from a factor analysis of Turkish data when compared with Armsden and Greenberg's factors, (b) the data provide evidence for the argument that relationships should be studied with an awareness that they exist within a sociological background that includes other relationships, and (c) regression analysis predicting different aspects of attachment indicated that different variables may be important as determinants of men's and women's relationships with significant others.

The development of the sense of self in adolescence

This study attempts to clarify the sense of self that may underlie the adolescent's subjective experience of identity. The initial orientation was provided by descriptions of three different modes of experiencing identity derived from a reanalysis of Loevinger, Wessler, and Redmore's (1970) ego development categories. Our goal was to replicate by a more direct method the Loevinger-derived descriptions. Specifically, we looked at whether the various aspects of the pre-identity mode ("Social Role Identity") and of the early identity mode ("Identity Observed") would in fact form different clusters and whether these clusters would differentiate early and middle adolescent groups. Participants were 24 sixth graders and 24 high-school seniors, equally divided by sex. In individual interviews they were asked questions concerning the main characteristics of the Identity Observed Mode. Six self scales were constructed from subjects' responses. Our two major hypotheses were strongly supported: (a) The two age groups differed dramatically on each of the self scales; and (b) the six self scales highly correlated with each other. Moreover, clusters of responses could be constructed that model the a priori descriptions of identity modes and that sharply separate the two grades.