301
|
Juneblad K, Johansson M, Rantapää-Dahlqvist S, Alenius GM. Association between the PTPN22 +1858 C/T polymorphism and psoriatic arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2011; 13:R45. [PMID: 21410964 PMCID: PMC3132030 DOI: 10.1186/ar3284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2010] [Revised: 01/21/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The purpose of the present study was to investigate the frequency of the PTPN22 +1858 C/T single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) (rs 2476601), previously shown to be associated with several autoimmune diseases, in patients with psoriatic arthritis (PsA) in comparison with population based controls. METHODS A total of 291 patients (145 male/146 female, mean age (± S.D.) 52.2 (± 13.1) years) with PsA were examined clinically, by standard laboratory tests and their DNA was genotyped for the SNP rs2476601 (PTPN22 +1858 C/T). Allelic frequencies were determined and compared with 725 controls. RESULTS Carriage of the risk allele, PTPN22+1858T, showed a significant association with patients with PsA compared with controls (χ2 = 6.56, P = 0.010, odds ratio (OR) 1.49; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.10 to 2.02). A significantly higher proportion of carriers of the risk allele (T) had significantly more deformed joints (n ± SEM) (5.9 ± 1.2 vs 2.8 ± 0.5; P = 0.005). CONCLUSIONS In this study the +1858T allele of the PTPN22 gene, known to be associated with several autoimmune diseases, was associated with PsA. The finding of significantly more joints with deformities among carriers of the T variant could indicate a more aggressive phenotype of disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Juneblad
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Rheumatology, University Hospital, SE-901 85 Umeå, Sweden.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
302
|
No association of PTPN22 R620 W gene polymorphism with rheumatic heart disease and systemic lupus erythematosus. Mol Biol Rep 2011; 38:5393-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s11033-011-0692-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2010] [Accepted: 02/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
303
|
Rodríguez-Rodríguez L, Taib WRW, Topless R, Steer S, González-Escribano MF, Balsa A, Pascual-Salcedo D, González-Gay MA, Raya E, Fernandez-Gutierrez B, González-Álvaro I, Bottini N, Witte T, Viken MK, Coenen MJH, van Riel PLCM, Franke B, den Heijer M, Radstake TRDJ, Wordsworth P, Lie BA, Merriman TR, Martín J. The PTPN22 R263Q polymorphism is a risk factor for rheumatoid arthritis in Caucasian case-control samples. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 63:365-72. [PMID: 21279993 DOI: 10.1002/art.30145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recently, a functional PTPN22 variant (R263Q; rs33996649) was found to be associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). This study was undertaken to analyze the influence of this polymorphism on the risk of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHODS RA patients (n = 5,579) were recruited from outpatient clinics from 6 different countries (Spain, New Zealand, the UK, Norway, The Netherlands, and Germany). Healthy controls (n = 5,392) were recruited from the same areas. There was 100% power to detect an effect equivalent to that observed in SLE. Samples were genotyped for the PTPN22 R263Q (rs33996649) and PTPN22 R620W (rs2476601) polymorphisms using a TaqMan 5'-allele discrimination assay. The effect of the R263Q variant was analyzed in isolation and in combination with the effect of R620W, using Unphased and Stata 10 software. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were determined. RESULTS The minor allele A of PTPN22 R263Q was significantly associated with a lower risk of RA in the pooled analysis of the 6 populations (P = 0.016, Mantel-Haenszel pooled OR 0.80 [95% CI 0.67-0.96]), independent of the effect of the R620W polymorphism. Both polymorphisms had an additive effect. The more RA risk alleles carried (R263Q G allele, R620W T allele), the higher the RA risk (for 2 versus 1 risk allele P = 0.014, OR 1.28 [95% CI 1.05-1.55], for 3 versus 1 risk allele P = 6.67 × 10(-11) , OR 2.01 [1.63-2.48], and for 4 versus 1 risk allele P = 6.50 × 10(-11) , OR 3.55 [2.42-5.20]). CONCLUSION Our findings indicate that the minor allele of the PTPN22 R263Q polymorphism is associated with a lower risk of RA. This association is independent of the well-established association between PTPN22 R620W and RA. Both polymorphisms have an additive effect on the risk of RA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis Rodríguez-Rodríguez
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina Lopez-Neyra, CSIC, Armilla and Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
304
|
Lavrikova EY, Nikitin AG, Kuraeva TL, Peterkova VA, Tsitlidze NM, Chistiakov DA, Nosikov VV. The carriage of the type 1 diabetes-associated R262W variant of human LNK correlates with increased proliferation of peripheral blood monocytes in diabetic patients. Pediatr Diabetes 2011; 12:127-32. [PMID: 20546165 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-5448.2010.00656.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Lymphocyte adaptor protein (LNK) plays a pivotal role as a suppressor of T-cell receptor-mediated immune signaling and negative regulator of lymphopoiesis and early hematopoiesis. Recently, association between the R262W (c.784T>C) variant of the SH2B3 gene (rs3184504) encoding human LNK and type 1 diabetes (T1D) was found in several populations. In this study, we aimed to check whether this marker is associated with T1D in a Russian population. METHODS Using a Taqman allele discrimination assay, we genotyped 1062 unrelated Russian individuals with diabetes at childhood and adolescence onset and 1020 healthy controls. T-cell proliferation assay based on the measurement of incorporation of bromo-2'-deoxyuridine incorporation into newly synthesized DNA was used to evaluate whether carriage of SH2B3 784T>C correlates with T-cell proliferation in patients' peripheral mononuclear blood cells (PMBCs) stimulated with anti-CD28 and anti-CD3 antibodies. RESULTS The allele 784C of SH2B3 was related to a higher risk of T1D (odds ratio of 1.52, p = 1.2 × 10(-12)). A correlation between the carriage of the predisposing C/C variant of LNK and increased proliferation of T lymphocytes was shown in PMBCs of both diabetic [C/C vs. C/T vs.T/T = optical density at 450 nm (OD(450)) 6.3 ± 0.8 vs. 4.4 ± 0.7 vs. 2.7 ± 0.5, p = 0.0007] and non-diabetic (C/C vs. C/T vs.T/T = OD(450) 2.9 ± 0.6 vs. 2.2 ± 0.4 vs. 1.7 ± 0.4, p = 0.022) patients. CONCLUSIONS The SH2B3 784T>C variant could contribute to the pathogenesis of T1D through impaired immune response that promotes activation and expansion of self-reactive lymphocytes in susceptible individuals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Y Lavrikova
- Department of Molecular Diagnostics, National Research Center GosNIIgenetika, Moscow, Russia
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
305
|
Long SA, Cerosaletti K, Wan JY, Ho JC, Tatum M, Wei S, Shilling HG, Buckner JH. An autoimmune-associated variant in PTPN2 reveals an impairment of IL-2R signaling in CD4(+) T cells. Genes Immun 2011; 12:116-25. [PMID: 21179116 PMCID: PMC3058680 DOI: 10.1038/gene.2010.54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2010] [Revised: 05/18/2010] [Accepted: 07/05/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The IL-2/IL-2R signaling pathway has an important role in autoimmunity. Several genes identified in genome-wide association (GWA) studies encode proteins in the IL-2/IL-2R signaling cascade that are associated with autoimmune diseases. One of these, PTPN2, encodes a protein tyrosine phosphatase that is highly expressed in T cells and regulates cytokine signaling. An intronic risk allele in PTPN2, rs1893217(C), correlated with decreased IL-2R signaling in CD4(+) T cells as measured by phosphorylation of STAT5 (phosphorylated STAT5 (pSTAT5)). We modeled an additive single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotype, in which each copy of the risk allele conferred a decrease in IL-2R signaling (P=4.4 × 10(-8)). Decreased pSTAT5 impacted IL-2Rβ chain signaling resulting in reduced FOXP3 expression in activated cells. This phenotype was not due to overt differences in expression of the IL-2R, molecules in the IL-2R signaling cascade or defects in STAT5. However, the rs1893217(C) risk variant did correlate with decreased PTPN2 expression in CD4(+)CD45RO T cells (P=0.0002). Thus, the PTPN2rs1893217(C) risk allele associated with reduced pSTAT5 in response to IL-2 and reduced PTPN2 expression. Together, these data suggest that decreased expression of PTPN2 may indirectly modulate IL-2 responsiveness. These findings, identified through genotype/phenotype relationships, may lead to identification of novel mechanisms underlying dysregulation of cytokine signaling in autoimmunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S A Long
- Department of Translational Immunology, Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason, Seattle, WA 98101, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
306
|
|
307
|
Ramenzoni LL, Saito CPB, McCormick JJ, Line SRP. Transcriptional activity analysis of promoter region of human PAX9 gene under dexamethasone, retinoic acid, and ergocalciferol treatment in MCF-7 and MDPC23. Cell Biochem Funct 2011; 28:555-64. [PMID: 20941745 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.1688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
PAX9 gene is a member of the family homeobox of transcription factors and performs important function in development and organogenesis. Mutations in PAX9 coding sequences have been implicated in autosomal dominant oligodontia affecting predominantly permanent molars and second premolars. Previous studies have shown that PAX9 is required for secondary palate development and teratogens have been identified as inducers of a tooth and craniofacial malformations. This work focused on the analysis on the 5'-flanking region of the PAX9 gene studying the influence of retinoic acid, dexamethasone, and vitamin D on the expression of PAX9 by expression constructs that carry the reporter gene luciferase. As results, retinoic acid and dexamethasone showed progressive decrease of PAX9 expression. PAX9-pGL3B1 and PAX9-pGL3B2 promoter was inhibited under the treatment of dexamethasone and ergocalciferol. Retinoic acid and dexamethasone did not alter PAX9-pGL3B3 behavior indicating that sequences present between -1106 and +92 were important for the transcriptional activity of PAX9 promoter. In this study, we characterized the transcriptional activity of specific regions of the PAX9 promoter gene and we demonstrated that retinoic acid and ergocalciferol can modulate the transcriptional activity of PAX9 gene.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liza L Ramenzoni
- Department of Morphology, Piracicaba Dental School, University of Campinas-Unicamp, Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
308
|
Abstract
BACKGROUND Type 1 diabetes, a multifactorial disease with a strong genetic component, is caused by the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic β cells. The major susceptibility locus maps to the HLA class II genes at 6p21, although more than 40 non-HLA susceptibility gene markers have been confirmed. CONTENT Although HLA class II alleles account for up to 30%-50% of genetic type 1 diabetes risk, multiple non-MHC loci contribute to disease risk with smaller effects. These include the insulin, PTPN22, CTLA4, IL2RA, IFIH1, and other recently discovered loci. Genomewide association studies performed with high-density single-nucleotide-polymorphism genotyping platforms have provided evidence for a number of novel loci, although fine mapping and characterization of these new regions remain to be performed. Children born with the high-risk genotype HLADR3/4-DQ8 comprise almost 50% of children who develop antiislet autoimmunity by the age of 5 years. Genetic risk for type 1 diabetes can be further stratified by selection of children with susceptible genotypes at other diabetes genes, by selection of children with a multiple family history of diabetes, and/or by selection of relatives that are HLA identical to the proband. SUMMARY Children with the HLA-risk genotypes DR3/4-DQ8 or DR4/DR4 who have a family history of type 1 diabetes have more than a 1 in 5 risk for developing islet autoantibodies during childhood, and children with the same HLA-risk genotype but no family history have approximately a 1 in 20 risk. Determining extreme genetic risk is a prerequisite for the implementation of primary prevention trials, which are now underway for relatives of individuals with type 1 diabetes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea K Steck
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO 80045-6511, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
309
|
Li Y, Shiffman D, Oberbauer R. Analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms in case-control studies. Methods Mol Biol 2011; 719:219-234. [PMID: 21370086 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-027-0_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are the most common type of genetic variants in the human genome. SNPs are known to modify susceptibility to complex diseases. We describe and discuss methods used to identify SNPs associated with disease in case-control studies. An outline on study population selection, sample collection and genotyping platforms is presented, complemented by SNP selection, data preprocessing and analysis.
Collapse
|
310
|
Worthington J. Genetic factors in rheumatic disease. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-06551-1.00014-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
|
311
|
The contribution of genetic factors to rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-06551-1.00086-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
|
312
|
Karver CE, Ahmed VF, Barrios AM. Oxidative inactivation of the lymphoid tyrosine phosphatase mediated by both general and active site directed NO donors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:285-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2010] [Revised: 10/29/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
313
|
Van Belle TL, Coppieters KT, Von Herrath MG. Type 1 Diabetes: Etiology, Immunology, and Therapeutic Strategies. Physiol Rev 2011; 91:79-118. [DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00003.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 673] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic autoimmune disease in which destruction or damaging of the beta-cells in the islets of Langerhans results in insulin deficiency and hyperglycemia. We only know for sure that autoimmunity is the predominant effector mechanism of T1D, but may not be its primary cause. T1D precipitates in genetically susceptible individuals, very likely as a result of an environmental trigger. Current genetic data point towards the following genes as susceptibility genes: HLA, insulin, PTPN22, IL2Ra, and CTLA4. Epidemiological and other studies suggest a triggering role for enteroviruses, while other microorganisms might provide protection. Efficacious prevention of T1D will require detection of the earliest events in the process. So far, autoantibodies are most widely used as serum biomarker, but T-cell readouts and metabolome studies might strengthen and bring forward diagnosis. Current preventive clinical trials mostly focus on environmental triggers. Therapeutic trials test the efficacy of antigen-specific and antigen-nonspecific immune interventions, but also include restoration of the affected beta-cell mass by islet transplantation, neogenesis and regeneration, and combinations thereof. In this comprehensive review, we explain the genetic, environmental, and immunological data underlying the prevention and intervention strategies to constrain T1D.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tom L. Van Belle
- Center for Type 1 Diabetes Research, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California
| | - Ken T. Coppieters
- Center for Type 1 Diabetes Research, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California
| | - Matthias G. Von Herrath
- Center for Type 1 Diabetes Research, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California
| |
Collapse
|
314
|
Vang T, Xie Y, Liu WH, Vidović D, Liu Y, Wu S, Smith DH, Rinderspacher A, Chung C, Gong G, Mustelin T, Landry DW, Rickert RC, Schürer SC, Deng SX, Tautz L. Inhibition of lymphoid tyrosine phosphatase by benzofuran salicylic acids. J Med Chem 2010; 54:562-71. [PMID: 21190368 DOI: 10.1021/jm101004d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The lymphoid tyrosine phosphatase (Lyp, PTPN22) is a critical negative regulator of T cell antigen receptor (TCR) signaling. A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the ptpn22 gene correlates with the incidence of various autoimmune diseases, including type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Since the disease-associated allele is a more potent inhibitor of TCR signaling, specific Lyp inhibitors may become valuable in treating autoimmunity. Using a structure-based approach, we synthesized a library of 34 compounds that inhibited Lyp with IC(50) values between 0.27 and 6.2 μM. A reporter assay was employed to screen for compounds that enhanced TCR signaling in cells, and several inhibitors displayed a dose-dependent, activating effect. Subsequent probing for Lyp's direct physiological targets by immunoblot analysis confirmed the ability of the compounds to inhibit Lyp in T cells. Selectivity profiling against closely related tyrosine phosphatases and in silico docking studies with the crystal structure of Lyp yielded valuable information for the design of Lyp-specific compounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Torkel Vang
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
315
|
Abstract
The endocrine system is a frequent target in pathogenic autoimmune responses. Type 1 diabetes and autoimmune thyroid disease are the prevailing examples. When several diseases cluster together in one individual, the phenomenon is called autoimmune polyglandular syndrome. Progress has been made in understanding the genetic factors involved in endocrine autoimmune diseases. Studies on monogenic autoimmune diseases such as autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 1, immunodysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked and primary immune deficiencies helped uncover the role of key regulators in the preservation of immune tolerance. Alleles of the major histocompatibility complex have been known to contribute to the susceptibility to most forms of autoimmunity for more than 3 decades. Furthermore, sequencing studies revealed three non-major histocompatibility complex loci and some disease specific loci, which control T lymphocyte activation or signalling. Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have enabled acceleration in the identification of novel (non-HLA) loci and hence other relevant immune response pathways. Interestingly, several loci are shared between autoimmune diseases, and surprisingly some work in opposite direction. This means that the same allele which predisposes to a certain autoimmune disease can be protective in another. Well powered GWAS in type 1 diabetes has led to the uncovering of a significant number of risk variants with modest effect. These studies showed that the innate immune system may also play a role in addition to the adaptive immune system. It is anticipated that next generation sequencing techniques will uncover other (rare) variants. For other autoimmune disease (such as autoimmune thyroid disease) GWAS are clearly needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janneke Wiebolt
- Department of Endocrinology, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
316
|
Wang S, Dong H, Han J, Ho WT, Fu X, Zhao ZJ. Identification of a variant form of tyrosine phosphatase LYP. BMC Mol Biol 2010; 11:78. [PMID: 21044313 PMCID: PMC2987843 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2199-11-78] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are important cell signaling regulators with major pathological implications. LYP (also known as PTPN22) is an intracellular enzyme initially found to be predominately expressed in lymphocytes. Importantly, an allelic R620W variant of LYP is strongly associated with multiple autoimmune diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes, and autoimmune thyroid disease. Results In this study, we isolated a novel isoform of LYP designated LYP3. LYP3 differs from LYP1, the known isoform of LYP, in that it lacks a 28 amino acid segment right after the R620W site embedded in a proline-rich protein-protein interaction motif. Genomic sequence analysis revealed that LYP3 resulted from alternative splicing of the LYP gene located on chromosome 1p 13.3-13.1. Reverse transcription PCR analyses of 48 human tissues demonstrated that both LYP1 and LYP3 are predominantly expressed in primary and secondary lymphoid tissues but the relative expression levels of the two isoforms varies in different human tissues and individuals. Conclusions We thus identified a new variant form of LYP and conducted a comprehensive analysis of LYP tissue expressions. Considering the pathogenesis of LYP R620W, we believe that the expression of LYP3 may have an important role in regulating activity and function of LYP and may be implicated in autoimmune diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shaofeng Wang
- Department of Pathology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73104, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
317
|
Wan Taib WR, Smyth DJ, Merriman ME, Dalbeth N, Gow PJ, Harrison AA, Highton J, Jones PBB, Stamp L, Steer S, Todd JA, Merriman TR. The PTPN22 locus and rheumatoid arthritis: no evidence for an effect on risk independent of Arg620Trp. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13544. [PMID: 20975833 PMCID: PMC2958827 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2010] [Accepted: 09/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives The Trp620 allotype of PTPN22 confers susceptibility to rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and certain other classical autoimmune diseases. There has been a report of other variants within the PTPN22 locus that alter risk of RA; protective haplotype ‘5’, haplotype group ‘6–10’ and susceptibility haplotype ‘4’, suggesting the possibility of other PTPN22 variants involved in the pathogenesis of RA independent of R620W (rs2476601). Our aim was to further investigate this possibility. Methods A total of 4,460 RA cases and 4,481 controls, all European, were analysed. Single nucleotide polymorphisms rs3789607, rs12144309, rs3811021 and rs12566340 were genotyped over New Zealand (NZ) and UK samples. Publically-available Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium (WTCCC) genotype data were used. Results The protective effect of haplotype 5 was confirmed (rs3789607; (OR = 0.91, P = 0.016), and a second protective effect (possibly of haplotype 6) was observed (rs12144309; OR = 0.90, P = 0.021). The previously reported susceptibility effect of haplotype 4 was not replicated; instead a protective effect was observed (rs3811021; OR = 0.85, P = 1.4×10−5). Haplotypes defined by rs3789607, rs12144309 and rs3811021 coalesced with the major allele of rs12566340 within the adjacent BFK (B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2) family kin) gene. We, therefore, tested rs12566340 for association with RA conditional on rs2476601; there was no evidence for an independent effect at rs12566340 (P = 0.76). Similarly, there was no evidence for an independent effect at rs12566340 in type 1 diabetes (P = 0.85). Conclusions We have no evidence for a common variant additional to rs2476601 within the PTPN22 locus that influences the risk of RA. Arg620Trp is almost certainly the single common causal variant.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wan R. Wan Taib
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Deborah J. Smyth
- Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation/Wellcome Trust Diabetes and Inflammation Laboratory, Department of Medical Genetics, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Nicola Dalbeth
- Department of Medicine, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Peter J. Gow
- Department of Rheumatology, Middlemore Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - John Highton
- Department of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Peter B. B. Jones
- Department of Medicine, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Lisa Stamp
- Department of Medicine, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Sophia Steer
- Department of Rheumatology, Kings College London School of Medicine at Guy's, King's and St. Thomas', London, United Kingdom
| | - John A. Todd
- Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation/Wellcome Trust Diabetes and Inflammation Laboratory, Department of Medical Genetics, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Tony R. Merriman
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
318
|
Majorczyk E, Pawlik A, Kuśnierczyk P. PTPN22 1858C>T polymorphism is strongly associated with rheumatoid arthritis but not with a response to methotrexate therapy. Int Immunopharmacol 2010; 10:1626-9. [PMID: 20888443 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2010.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2010] [Revised: 09/15/2010] [Accepted: 09/15/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
PTPN22 (protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 22) 1858C>T single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is one of the genetic risk factors of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, its role in the response of RA patients to therapy is not known. We examined a possible association of this SNP with a response of RA patients to methotrexate (MTX) treatment. RA was diagnosed in 371 patients according to the American College of Rheumatology (ACR) criteria. All 371 patients were typed for PTPN22 1858C>T SNP. Clinical data for 308 patients treated with MTX were available. Clinical improvement was evaluated according to the ACR 20% response criteria. Five hundred and forty three unrelated healthy individuals served as a control group. DNA was isolated from venous blood and 1858C>T SNP was established by polymerase chain reaction followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism using XcmI digestion. One hundred and seventy four patients responded to MTX with remission of symptoms, whereas 134 individuals were not responding. Although 78.6% of patients with 1858TT genotype responded to MTX in contrast to 49.5% and 58.1% of CT and CC genotype bearers, respectively, this difference was nonsignificant due to very low numbers of TT homozygotes in both groups of patients. We confirmed strong association of 1858T allele with RA and with a disease limited to joints, but did not observe any association with a lack of rheumatoid factor, described earlier for a smaller population sample. However, the response of RA patients to MTX treatment does not seem to depend on this SNP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edyta Majorczyk
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics and Tissue Immunology, Department of Clinical Immunology, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wrocław, Poland.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
319
|
Kroger CJ, Flores RR, Morillon M, Wang B, Tisch R. Dysregulation of thymic clonal deletion and the escape of autoreactive T cells. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2010; 58:449-57. [PMID: 20872284 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-010-0100-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2010] [Accepted: 06/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Events ongoing in the thymus are critical for deleting developing thymocytes specific for tissue antigens, and establishing self-tolerance within the T cell compartment. Aberrant thymic negative selection, however, is believed to generate a repertoire with increased self-reactivity, which in turn can contribute to the development of T cell-mediated autoimmunity. In this review, mechanisms that regulate the efficacy of negative selection and influence the deletion of autoreactive thymocytes will be discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles J Kroger
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Mary Ellen Jones Bldg., Room 635, Campus Box 7290, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7290, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
320
|
Delogu LG, Magrini A, Bergamaschi A, Rosato N, Dawson MI, Bottini N, Bottini M. Conjugation of antisense oligonucleotides to PEGylated carbon nanotubes enables efficient knockdown of PTPN22 in T lymphocytes. Bioconjug Chem 2010; 20:427-31. [PMID: 19243140 DOI: 10.1021/bc800540j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
PEGylated-carbon nanotubes (PNTs) were evaluated as nanocarriers of antisense oligonucleotides into T-cells using protein tyrosine phosphatase N22 (PTPN22) as a model target gene. PTPN22 is an important predisposing gene and drug target in type 1 diabetes and several other human autoimmune diseases. Here, we generated the first anti-PTPN22 20-mer antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) and tethered them to PNTs through a cleavable disulfide bond. Spectroscopic and atomic force microscopy analyses were used to determine the loading of ASO onto PNTs, whereas the cleavable nature of the disulfide bond connecting the oligonucleotide to the nanocarrier was confirmed by incubation with dithiothreitol followed by agarose gel electrophoresis. PNT-conjugated ASOs achieved efficient (>50%) knockdown of PTPN22 expression in T-lymphocytes in culture at the mRNA and protein level, as measured by quantitative real-time PCR and Western blotting, respectively. Considering the high biocompatibility and low in vivo toxicity of PNTs, we expect that our approach will be easily translated to achieve in vivo knockdown of PTPN22 and other T lymphocyte targets, thus enabling novel ASO-mediated immunotherapies for type 1 diabetes and other autoimmune diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lucia G Delogu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Institute for Genetic Medicine, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
321
|
[How do T-cells become activated in joints?]. Z Rheumatol 2010; 69:738, 740-2. [PMID: 20862478 DOI: 10.1007/s00393-010-0698-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Activated CD4+ T-cells are found in joints of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and are involved in the joint destroying autoimmune response. Besides proinflammatory cytokine production T-cells are indispensable for the activation of B-cells, the so-called T-cell help for B-cells. However, the recognition of autoantigens by T-cells seems of utmost importance for the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Selective inhibition of this process is therefore one of the most interesting therapeutic targets for the future.
Collapse
|
322
|
Au AC, Hernandez PA, Lieber E, Nadroo AM, Shen YM, Kelley KA, Gelb BD, Diaz GA. Protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPN14 is a regulator of lymphatic function and choanal development in humans. Am J Hum Genet 2010; 87:436-44. [PMID: 20826270 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2010] [Revised: 08/03/2010] [Accepted: 08/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The lymphatic vasculature is essential for the recirculation of extracellular fluid, fat absorption, and immune function and as a route of tumor metastasis. The dissection of molecular mechanisms underlying lymphangiogenesis has been accelerated by the identification of tissue-specific lymphatic endothelial markers and the study of congenital lymphedema syndromes. We report the results of genetic analyses of a kindred inheriting a unique autosomal-recessive lymphedema-choanal atresia syndrome. These studies establish linkage of the trait to chromosome 1q32-q41 and identify a loss-of-function mutation in PTPN14, which encodes a nonreceptor tyrosine phosphatase. The causal role of PTPN14 deficiency was confirmed by the generation of a murine Ptpn14 gene trap model that manifested lymphatic hyperplasia with lymphedema. Biochemical studies revealed a potential interaction between PTPN14 and the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (VEGFR3), a receptor tyrosine kinase essential for lymphangiogenesis. These results suggest a unique and conserved role for PTPN14 in the regulation of lymphatic development in mammals and a nonconserved role in choanal development in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Audrey C Au
- Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
323
|
Leveraging human genetics to develop future therapeutic strategies in rheumatoid arthritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 2010; 36:259-70. [PMID: 20510233 DOI: 10.1016/j.rdc.2010.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to place these genetic discoveries in the context of current and future therapeutic strategies for patients with RA. More specifically, this article focuses on (1) a brief overview of genetic studies, (2) human genetics as an approach to identify the Achilles heel of disease pathways, (3) humans as the model organism for functional studies of human mutations, (4) pharmacogenetic studies to gain insight into the mechanism of action of drugs, and (5) next-generation patient registries to enable large-scale genotype-phenotype studies.
Collapse
|
324
|
|
325
|
Douroudis K, Shcherbakova A, Everaus H, Aints A. PTPN22 gene regulates natural killer cell proliferation during in vitro expansion. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 76:315-8. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0039.2010.01512.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
|
326
|
Fichna M, Żurawek M, Januszkiewicz-Lewandowska D, Fichna P, Nowak J. PTPN22, PDCD1 and CYP27B1 polymorphisms and susceptibility to type 1 diabetes in Polish patients. Int J Immunogenet 2010; 37:367-72. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-313x.2010.00935.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
327
|
Arimura Y, Yagi J. Comprehensive expression profiles of genes for protein tyrosine phosphatases in immune cells. Sci Signal 2010; 3:rs1. [PMID: 20807954 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.2000966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of signaling molecules play a crucial role in various cellular processes, including immune responses. To date, the global expression profile of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) in various immune cells has not been described. With the RefDIC (Reference Genomics Database of Immune Cells) database compiled by RIKEN (Rikagaku Kenkyusho), we examined the expression patterns of PTP-encoding genes in mice and identified between 57 and 64 PTP-encoding genes (depending on cutoff values) that were commonly expressed in immune cells. Cells of different lineages contained additional, unique PTP-encoding genes, which resulted in a total of 58 to 76 genes. Compared with cells from nonimmune tissues, immune cells exhibited enhanced expression of the genes encoding 8 PTP-encoding genes, including Ptprc, Ptpn6, and Ptpn22, but had barely detectable expression of 11 PTP-encoding genes, including Ptprd and Tns1. Each immune cell lineage had between 2 and 18 PTP-encoding genes expressed at relatively high or low extents relative to the average expression among immune cells; for example, Ptprj in B cells, Dusp3 in macrophages, Ptpro in dendritic cells, and Ptprg in mast cells. These PTPs potentially play important roles in each cell lineage, and our analysis provides insight for future functional studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yutaka Arimura
- Microbiology and Immunology, Tokyo Women's Medical University School of Medicine, 8-1 Kawada, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8666, Japan.
| | | |
Collapse
|
328
|
Flesher DLT, Sun X, Behrens TW, Graham RR, Criswell LA. Recent advances in the genetics of systemic lupus erythematosus. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2010; 6:461-79. [PMID: 20441431 DOI: 10.1586/eci.10.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by the production of antinuclear autoantibodies and the inflammatory infiltration of many organ systems. SLE is a complex disorder in which multiple genetic variants, together with environmental and hormonal factors, contribute to disease risk. In this article, we summarize our current understanding of the genetic contribution to SLE in light of recent genome-wide association studies, which have brought the total number of confirmed SLE susceptibility loci to 29. In the second section, we explore the functional implications of these risk loci and, in particular, highlight the role that many of these genes play in the Toll-like receptor and type I interferon signaling pathways. Finally, we discuss the genetic overlap between SLE and other autoimmune and inflammatory conditions as several risk loci are shared among multiple disorders, suggesting common underlying pathogenic mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Donna L Thibault Flesher
- ITGR Human Genetics, Genentech Research & Early Development, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080-94990, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
329
|
Gockel HR, Schumacher J, Gockel I, Lang H, Haaf T, Nöthen MM. Achalasia: will genetic studies provide insights? Hum Genet 2010. [PMID: 20700745 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-010-0874-8.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Despite increasing understanding of the pathophysiology of achalasia, the etiology of this esophageal motility disorder remains largely unknown. However, the occurrence of familial achalasia and its association with well-defined genetic syndromes suggest the involvement of genetic factors. Mutant mouse models display gastrointestinal disturbances that are similar to those observed in achalasia patients. The candidate gene approach has revealed some promising results; however, it has not established conclusive links to specific genes so far. The aim of this review was to summarize current knowledge of the genetics of achalasia. We also discuss the extent to which our understanding of achalasia is likely to be enhanced through future molecular genetic research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Henning R Gockel
- Department of General and Abdominal Surgery, Johannes Gutenberg University, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
330
|
Gockel HR, Schumacher J, Gockel I, Lang H, Haaf T, Nöthen MM. Achalasia: will genetic studies provide insights? Hum Genet 2010; 128:353-64. [PMID: 20700745 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-010-0874-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2010] [Accepted: 08/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Despite increasing understanding of the pathophysiology of achalasia, the etiology of this esophageal motility disorder remains largely unknown. However, the occurrence of familial achalasia and its association with well-defined genetic syndromes suggest the involvement of genetic factors. Mutant mouse models display gastrointestinal disturbances that are similar to those observed in achalasia patients. The candidate gene approach has revealed some promising results; however, it has not established conclusive links to specific genes so far. The aim of this review was to summarize current knowledge of the genetics of achalasia. We also discuss the extent to which our understanding of achalasia is likely to be enhanced through future molecular genetic research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Henning R Gockel
- Department of General and Abdominal Surgery, Johannes Gutenberg University, Langenbeckstr. 1, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
331
|
Association of PTPN22 haplotypes with type 1 diabetes in the Japanese population. Hum Immunol 2010; 71:795-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humimm.2010.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2010] [Revised: 05/15/2010] [Accepted: 05/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
332
|
Thomas R. The balancing act of autoimmunity: central and peripheral tolerance versus infection control. Int Rev Immunol 2010; 29:211-33. [PMID: 20367141 DOI: 10.3109/08830180903434219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Genetic associations with autoimmune disease are enriched in immune response regulators. The immune system in individuals at genetic risk of autoimmunity must balance pressures on the innate and adaptive immune system, most notably infection control, with those of maintaining self-tolerance or controlling autoimmune inflammation. In spite of multiple tolerance mechanisms, inflammation becomes chronic in autoimmune disease, and complete resolution is difficult. This article proposes a perspective on the pathogenesis of autoimmunity-focusing on rheumatoid arthritis and type 1 diabetes-integrating clinical advances and animal models with the role that colonizing micro-organisms play in the balance between tolerance and autoimmunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ranjeny Thomas
- Diamantina Institute for Cancer, Immunology and Metabolic Medicine, University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
333
|
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Thr allele at the non-synonymous single-nucleotide polymorphism (nsSNP) Thr946Ala in the IFIH1 gene confers risk for Type 1 diabetes (T1D). The SNP is embedded in a 236 kb linkage disequilibrium (LD) block that includes four genes: IFIH1, GCA, FAP and KCNH7. The absence of common nsSNPs in the other genes makes the IFIH1 SNP the strongest functional candidate, but it could be merely a marker of association, due to LD with a variant regulating expression levels of IFIH1 or neighboring genes. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We investigated the effect of the T1D-associated variation on mRNA transcript expression of these genes. Heterozygous mRNA from lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs), pancreas and thymus was examined by allelic expression imbalance, to detect effects in cis on mRNA expression. Using single-nucleotide primer extension, we found no difference between mRNA transcripts in 9 LCLs, 6 pancreas and 13 thymus samples, suggesting that GCA and FAP are not involved. On the other hand, KCNH7 was not expressed at a detectable level in all tissues examined. Moreover, the association of the Thr946Ala SNP with T1D is not due to modulation of IFIH1 expression in organs involved in the disease, pointing to the IFIH1 nsSNP as the causal variant. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The mechanism of the association of the nsSNP with T1D remains to be determined, but does not involve mRNA modulation. It becomes necessary to study differential function of the IFIH1 protein alleles at Thr946Ala to confirm that it is responsible for the disease association.
Collapse
|
334
|
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD), including Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis, arise due to complex interactions between environmental and genetic factors. There are sound data coming from epidemiological, family, and twin studies demonstrating a strong genetic influence on the development of AITD. In this review we summarize the new findings on the genetic susceptibility to AITD focusing on emerging mechanisms of susceptibility. SUMMARY Candidate gene analysis, whole-genome linkage screening, genome-wide association studies, and whole-genome sequencing are the major technologies that have advanced this field, leading to the identification of at least seven genes whose variants have been associated with AITD. One of the major ones is the HLA-DR gene locus. Recently, it was shown that substitution of the neutral amino acids Ala or Gln with arginine at position beta 74 in the HLA-DR peptide-binding pocket is key to the etiology of both Graves' disease and Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Several other genes have also been shown to confer susceptibility to AITD. These can be classified into two groups: (i) immune regulatory genes (cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated protein 4, CD40, protein tyrosine phosphatase-22, and CD25) and (ii) thyroid-specific genes (thyroglobulin and thyrotropin receptor genes). The influence of individual genes on the development of AITD when assessed in a population appears to be weaker than would be expected from the data showing strong genetic susceptibility to AITD. Two possible mechanisms explaining this discrepancy are gene-gene interactions and subset effects. CONCLUSIONS Significant progress has been made in our understanding of the immunogenetic mechanisms leading to thyroid autoimmunity. For the first time we are beginning to unravel these mechanisms at the molecular level. It is hoped that these new data will be translated into novel therapies and prevention strategies in AITD, such as costimulatory blockade.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yaron Tomer
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, New York 10029, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
335
|
Walton ZE, Bishop AC. Target-specific control of lymphoid-specific protein tyrosine phosphatase (Lyp) activity. Bioorg Med Chem 2010; 18:4884-91. [PMID: 20594861 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2010.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2010] [Revised: 06/01/2010] [Accepted: 06/07/2010] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Lymphoid-specific protein tyrosine phosphatase (Lyp), a member of the protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) superfamily of enzymes, is an important mediator of human-leukocyte signaling. Lyp has also emerged as a potential anti-autoimmune therapeutic target, owing to the association of a Lyp-activating mutation with an array of autoimmune disorders. Toward the goal of generating a selective inhibitor of Lyp activity that could be used for investigating Lyp's roles in cell signaling and autoimmune-disease progression, here we report that Lyp's PTP domain can be readily sensitized to target-specific inhibition by a cell-permeable small molecule. Insertion of a tetracysteine-motif-containing peptide at a conserved position in Lyp's catalytic domain generated a mutant enzyme (Lyp-CCPGCC) that retains activity comparable to that of wild-type Lyp in the absence of added ligand. Upon addition of a tetracysteine-targeting biarsenical compound (FlAsH), however, the activity of the Lyp-CCPGCC drops dramatically, as assayed with either small-molecule or phosphorylated-peptide PTP substrates. We show that FlAsH-induced Lyp-CCPGCC inhibition is potent, specific, rapid, and independent of the nature of the PTP substrate used in the inhibition assay. Moreover, we show that FlAsH can be used to specifically target overexpressed Lyp-CCPGCC in a complex proteomic mixture. Since the mammalian-cell permeability of FlAsH is well established, it is likely that FlAsH-mediated inhibition of Lyp-CCPGCC will be useful for specifically targeting Lyp activity in engineered leukocytes and autoimmune-disease models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zandra E Walton
- Amherst College, Department of Chemistry, Amherst, MA 01002, United States
| | | |
Collapse
|
336
|
Mannering SI, Brodnicki TC. Recent insights into CD4+ T-cell specificity and function in type 1 diabetes. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2010; 3:557-64. [PMID: 20477160 DOI: 10.1586/1744666x.3.4.557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is caused by T-cell-mediated destruction of the insulin-producing beta-cells in the pancreas. Genetic and immunological evidence from humans and mouse models indicates that CD4(+) T cells play a crucial role in the development and prevention of T1D. The dichotomy between CD4(+) T regulatory and effector T cells has encouraged research into the role of these cell subsets in T1D. New antigens and epitopes recognized by CD4(+) T cells in affected individuals have been identified. Growing knowledge of T-cell specificity and function is helping to develop new assays for analyzing islet antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells from human blood. Here we discuss, with particular reference to human studies, advances in our understanding of CD4(+) T-cell responses in T1D.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stuart I Mannering
- Autoimmunity & Transplantation Division, The Walter & Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia.
| | | |
Collapse
|
337
|
Fiorillo E, Orrú V, Stanford SM, Liu Y, Salek M, Rapini N, Schenone AD, Saccucci P, Delogu LG, Angelini F, Manca Bitti ML, Schmedt C, Chan AC, Acuto O, Bottini N. Autoimmune-associated PTPN22 R620W variation reduces phosphorylation of lymphoid phosphatase on an inhibitory tyrosine residue. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:26506-18. [PMID: 20538612 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.111104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
A missense C1858T single nucleotide polymorphism in the PTPN22 gene recently emerged as a major risk factor for human autoimmunity. PTPN22 encodes the lymphoid tyrosine phosphatase (LYP), which forms a complex with the kinase Csk and is a critical negative regulator of signaling through the T cell receptor. The C1858T single nucleotide polymorphism results in the LYP-R620W variation within the LYP-Csk interaction motif. LYP-W620 exhibits a greatly reduced interaction with Csk and is a gain-of-function inhibitor of signaling. Here we show that LYP constitutively interacts with its substrate Lck in a Csk-dependent manner. T cell receptor-induced phosphorylation of LYP by Lck on an inhibitory tyrosine residue releases tonic inhibition of signaling by LYP. The R620W variation disrupts the interaction between Lck and LYP, leading to reduced phosphorylation of LYP, which ultimately contributes to gain-of-function inhibition of T cell signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edoardo Fiorillo
- Institute for Genetic Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
338
|
Roncagalli R, Mingueneau M, Grégoire C, Malissen M, Malissen B. LAT signaling pathology: an "autoimmune" condition without T cell self-reactivity. Trends Immunol 2010; 31:253-9. [PMID: 20542732 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2010.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2010] [Revised: 04/27/2010] [Accepted: 05/03/2010] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Partial loss-of-function mutations in several molecules involved in T-cell receptor (TCR) signaling result in inflammation and autoimmunity. How can mutations that reduce TCR signaling output, paradoxically lead to immune pathology? This review summarizes experiments demonstrating that mutations in the linker for activation of T cells (LAT) predispose toward aberrant T cell responses to antigen in the presence of normal thymic selection. In the absence of LAT, antigen-specific T cells give rise to self-perpetuating pro-inflammatory responses and induce the production of autoantibodies independently of TCR engagement. Therefore, some pathological conditions called "autoimmune" might not result from the presence of self-reactive T cells, but from defective mechanisms that normally keep T cell activation in check.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Romain Roncagalli
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Université de la Méditerranée, Case 906, 13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
339
|
Zervou MI, Castro-Giner F, Sidiropoulos P, Boumpas DT, Tosca AD, Krueger-Krasagakis S. The protein tyrosine phosphatase, non-receptor type 22 R620W polymorphism does not confer susceptibility to psoriasis in the genetic homogeneous population of Crete. Genet Test Mol Biomarkers 2010; 14:107-11. [PMID: 20039785 DOI: 10.1089/gtmb.2009.0130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent whole-genome and candidate-gene association studies in patients with psoriasis (PS) have identified a number of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that predispose to disease with moderate risk. Predisposition to PS is known to be affected by genetic variation in human leukocyte antigen-C as well as other non-human leukocyte antigen genes. We recently reported for the first time as a PS-associated SNP the signal transducer and activator of transcription-4 (STAT4) rs7574865 polymorphism, which is also associated with several autoimmune diseases. The aim of this study was to assess whether the functional R620W polymorphism of protein tyrosine phosphatase, non-receptor type 22 (PTPN22) gene encoding the lymphoid-specific tyrosine phosphatase, which is known to be associated with various autoimmune diseases, also confers increased risk for PS in the genetic homogeneous population of Crete. A case-control study was performed with 173 PS patients consecutively recruited and 348 healthy controls, all of them from the island of Crete. We found that the mutated T allele of the PTPN22 1858T SNP was more common in control individuals than in patients with PS (odds ratio = 0.39, 95% confidence interval = 0.11-1.04, p = 0.09). No considerable difference was observed in terms of sex, age of onset, or clinical presentation of psoriatic arthritis. Our results provide evidence that the PTPN22 1858T allele is not a susceptibility factor for PS in the Cretan population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria I Zervou
- Laboratory of Dermatology, Department of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
340
|
Hashimoto M, Hirota K, Yoshitomi H, Maeda S, Teradaira S, Akizuki S, Prieto-Martin P, Nomura T, Sakaguchi N, Köhl J, Heyman B, Takahashi M, Fujita T, Mimori T, Sakaguchi S. Complement drives Th17 cell differentiation and triggers autoimmune arthritis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 207:1135-43. [PMID: 20457757 PMCID: PMC2882841 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20092301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Activation of serum complement triggers Th17 cell–dependent spontaneous autoimmune disease in an animal model. In genetically autoimmune-prone SKG mice, administration of mannan or β-glucan, both of which activate serum complement, evoked Th17 cell–mediated chronic autoimmune arthritis. C5a, a chief component of complement activation produced via all three complement pathways (i.e., lectin, classical, and alternative), stimulated tissue-resident macrophages, but not dendritic cells, to produce inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, in synergy with Toll-like receptor signaling or, notably, granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). GM-CSF secreted by activated T cells indeed enhanced in vitro IL-6 production by C5a-stimulated macrophages. In vivo, C5a receptor (C5aR) deficiency in SKG mice inhibited the differentiation/expansion of Th17 cells after mannan or β-glucan treatment, and consequently suppressed the development of arthritis. Transfer of SKG T cells induced Th17 cell differentiation/expansion and produced arthritis in C5aR-sufficient recombination activating gene (RAG)−/− mice but not in C5aR-deficient RAG−/− recipients. In vivo macrophage depletion also inhibited disease development in SKG mice. Collectively, the data suggest that complement activation by exogenous or endogenous stimulation can initiate Th17 cell differentiation and expansion in certain autoimmune diseases and presumably in microbial infections. Blockade of C5aR may thus be beneficial for controlling Th17-mediated inflammation and autoimmune disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Motomu Hashimoto
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Institute for Frontier Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
341
|
Santamaria P. The long and winding road to understanding and conquering type 1 diabetes. Immunity 2010; 32:437-45. [PMID: 20412754 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2010.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2010] [Revised: 03/29/2010] [Accepted: 03/31/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases with high population prevalence such as type 1 diabetes (T1D) develop as a result of ill-defined interactions between putative environmental triggers and a constellation of genetic elements scattered throughout the genome. In T1D, these interactions somehow trigger a loss of tolerance to pancreatic beta cells, manifested in the form of a chronic autoimmune response that mobilizes virtually every cell type of the immune system and progressively erodes the host's beta cell mass. The five accompanying review articles focus on key areas of T1D research, ranging from genetics and pathogenesis to prediction and therapy. Here, I attempt to integrate and bring into focus the most salient points of these reviews in the context of other findings, with an emphasis on identifying knowledge gaps and research opportunities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pere Santamaria
- Julia McFarlane Diabetes Research Centre, Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases and Institute of Inflammation, Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
342
|
Ziegler AG, Nepom GT. Prediction and pathogenesis in type 1 diabetes. Immunity 2010; 32:468-78. [PMID: 20412757 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2010.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 236] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2010] [Revised: 03/15/2010] [Accepted: 03/30/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A combination of genetic and immunological features is useful for prediction of autoimmune diabetes. Patterns of immune response correspond to the progression from a preclinical phase of disease to end-stage islet damage, with biomarkers indicating transition from susceptibility to active autoimmunity, and to a final loss of immune regulation. Here, we review the markers that provide evidence for immunological checkpoint failure and that also provide tools for assessment of individualized disease risk. When viewed in the context of genetic variation that influences immune response thresholds, progression from susceptibility to overt disease displays predictable modalities of clinical presentation resulting from a sequential series of failed homeostatic checkpoints for selection and activation of immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anette-G Ziegler
- Forschergruppe Diabetes, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Kölner Platz 1, 80804 München, Germany.
| | | |
Collapse
|
343
|
Abstract
Genetic studies have identified more than 150 autoimmune loci, and next-generation sequencing will identify more. Is it time to make human the model organism for autoimmune research?
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert Plenge
- Brigham and Women's Hospital, Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
344
|
Abstract
The autoimmune polyglandular syndromes-a group of syndromes comprising a combination of endocrine and nonendocrine autoimmune diseases-differ in their component diseases and in the immunologic features of their pathogenesis. One of the three main syndromes, type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (APS-1), has a unique pathogenic mechanism owing to mutations in the autoimmune regulator (AIRE) gene, which results in the loss of central tolerance-a process by which developing T cells with potential reactivity for self-antigens are eliminated during early differentiation in the thymus. Patients with IPEX (immune dysfunction, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked) syndrome harbor mutations in the forkhead box P3 (FOXP3) gene in regulatory T cells, which leads to severe autoimmunity and immune deficiency. Although both of these disorders are rare, their well-defined mechanisms of disease provide a basis for the understanding of the more common condition, APS-2. In this syndrome, alleles of human leukocyte antigens (HLAs) determine the targeting of specific tissues by autoreactive T cells, which leads to organ-specific autoimmunity as a result of this loss of tolerance. Non-HLA genes also contribute to autoimmunity in APS-2 and, depending on the polymorphism, potentially predispose to a loss of tolerance or influence which organ is specifically targeted. This Review discusses the genetic basis of APS-1, APS-2 and IPEX syndrome, with an emphasis on the mechanisms of autoimmunity and presents currently available therapies to treat their underlying autoimmune disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aaron W Michels
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Denver, 1775 Aurora Court, MS B140, PO Box 6511, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
345
|
Spatiotemporal control of cyclic AMP immunomodulation through the PKA-Csk inhibitory pathway is achieved by anchoring to an Ezrin-EBP50-PAG scaffold in effector T cells. FEBS Lett 2010; 584:2681-8. [PMID: 20420835 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2010.04.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2010] [Revised: 04/16/2010] [Accepted: 04/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A variety of immunoregulatory signals to effector T cells from monocytes, macrophages and regulatory T cells act through cyclic adenosine monophosphate. In the effector T cell, the protein kinase A (PKA) type I isoenzyme localizes to lipid rafts during T cell activation and modulates directly the proximal events that take place after engagement of the T cell receptor. The most proximal target for PKA phosphorylation is C-terminal Src kinase (Csk), which initiates a negative signal pathway that fine-tunes the T cell activation process. The A kinase anchoring protein Ezrin colocalizes PKA and Csk by forming a supramolecular signaling complex consisting of PKA, Ezrin, Ezrin/radixin/moesin (ERM) binding protein of 50 kDa (EBP50), phosphoprotein associated with glycosphingolipid-enriched membrane microdomains (GEMs) (PAG) and Csk.
Collapse
|
346
|
Berthelot JM, le Goff B, Maugars Y. Thymic Hassall's Corpuscles, Regulatory T-Cells, and Rheumatoid Arthritis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2010; 39:347-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2008.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2008] [Revised: 07/03/2008] [Accepted: 08/25/2008] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
|
347
|
Abstract
The Banting Medal for Scientific Achievement Award is the American Diabetes Association's highest scientific award and honors an individual who has made significant, long-term contributions to the understanding of diabetes, its treatment, and/or prevention. The award is named after Nobel Prize winner Sir Frederick Banting, who codiscovered insulin treatment for diabetes. Dr. Eisenbarth received the American Diabetes Association's Banting Medal for Scientific Achievement at the Association's 69th Scientific Sessions, June 5–9, 2009, in New Orleans, Louisiana. He presented the Banting Lecture, An Unfinished Journey—Type 1 Diabetes—Molecular Pathogenesis to Prevention , on Sunday, June 7, 2009.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- George S Eisenbarth
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Aurora, Colorado, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
348
|
Early suppression of immune response pathways characterizes children with prediabetes in genome-wide gene expression profiling. J Autoimmun 2010; 35:70-6. [PMID: 20356713 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2010.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2009] [Revised: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 03/01/2010] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is caused by autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells in the islets of Langerhans. Although defects in various T cell subsets have been linked to the disease pathogenesis, mechanisms initiating or enhancing the autoimmunity in prediabetes remain poorly understood. To unravel genes and molecular pathways affected by the diabetes-associated autoimmunity, we investigated transcriptomic profiles of prospective whole-blood samples from children who have developed T1D-associated autoantibodies and eventually clinical T1D. Gene-level investigation of the data showed systematic differential expression of 520 probesets. A network-based analysis revealed then a highly significant down-regulated network of genes involved in antigen presentation as well as T-cell receptor and insulin signaling. Finally, detection of dynamic changes in the affected pathways at the early or late phases of autoimmunity showed down-regulation of several novel T1D-associated pathways as well as known key components of immune response. The longitudinal genome-wide data generated in the present study allows the detection of dynamic changes relevant to the disease that may be completely missed in conventional cross-sectional studies or in genome-wide association studies. Taken together, our analysis showed systemic high-level repression of immune response pathways associated with T1D autoimmunity.
Collapse
|
349
|
O'Rielly DD, Rahman P. Pharmacogenetics of rheumatoid arthritis: Potential targets from susceptibility genes and present therapies. PHARMACOGENOMICS & PERSONALIZED MEDICINE 2010; 3:15-31. [PMID: 23226040 PMCID: PMC3513198 DOI: 10.2147/pgpm.s5012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2010] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic heterogeneous autoimmune disorder of unknown etiology resulting in inflammation in the synovium, cartilage, and bone. Genetic factors play an important role in susceptibility to RA as the heritability of RA is between 50% and 60%, with the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) locus accounting for at least 30% of overall genetic risk. Outside the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region, six additional risk loci have been identified and validated including PTPN22, STAT4, PADI4, CTLA4, TNFAIP3-OLIG3, and TRAF1/C5. Genetic factors are also important in RA pharmacotherapy due to the gene-dependent activity of enzymes involved in the pharmacokinetics and/or pharmacodynamics of RA medications. Indeed, there is great variability in drug efficacy as well as adverse events associated with any anti-rheumatic therapy and genetics is thought to contribute significantly to this inter-individual variability in response. This review will summarize the genetic factors that have been implicated in the pathogenesis of RA, and how these determinants may factor into the potential pharmacogenetics of this disease. We will also review the therapeutic agents that are currently being utilized or presently being evaluated in the treatment of RA, along with potential pharmacogenetic markers that have been proposed for such medications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Darren D O'Rielly
- Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
350
|
Chagastelles PC, Romitti M, Trein MR, Bandinelli E, Tschiedel B, Nardi NB. Association between the 1858T allele of the protein tyrosine phosphatase nonreceptor type 22 and type 1 diabetes in a Brazilian population. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 76:144-8. [PMID: 20331840 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0039.2010.01480.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The 1858T allele of the protein tyrosine phosphatase nonreceptor 22 (PTPN22) gene has been associated to diabetes in different populations. We investigated a possible relationship between this polymorphism and type 1 diabetes in a cohort of Brazilian patients. A significantly higher frequency of the 1858T allele was observed in diabetic patients (n = 211) than in control individuals (n = 241). Additionally, the heterozygote genotype was also increased in the diabetic group. No association was observed between the PTPN22 T allele and gender, or between T carriers and age of onset of T1D. This work describes for the first time a strong association of the 1858T allele with type 1 diabetes in a Brazilian population, reinforcing the role of this variant as an important susceptibility factor for this disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P C Chagastelles
- Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|