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Palanca JM, Aguirre-Rueda D, Granell MV, Aldasoro M, Garcia A, Iradi A, Obrador E, Mauricio MD, Vila J, Gil-Bisquert A, Valles SL. Sugammadex, a neuromuscular blockade reversal agent, causes neuronal apoptosis in primary cultures. Int J Med Sci 2013; 10:1278-85. [PMID: 23983586 PMCID: PMC3752716 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.6254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 07/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sugammadex, a γ-cyclodextrin that encapsulates selectively steroidal neuromuscular blocking agents, such as rocuronium or vecuronium, has changed the face of clinical neuromuscular pharmacology. Sugammadex allows a rapid reversal of muscle paralysis. Sugammadex appears to be safe and well tolerated. Its blood-brain barrier penetration is poor (< 3% in rats), and thus no relevant central nervous toxicity is expected. However the blood brain barrier permeability can be altered under different conditions (i.e. neurodegenerative diseases, trauma, ischemia, infections, or immature nervous system). Using MTT, confocal microscopy, caspase-3 activity, cholesterol quantification and Western-blot we determine toxicity of Sugammadex in neurons in primary culture. Here we show that clinically relevant sugammadex concentrations cause apoptotic/necrosis neuron death in primary cultures. Studies on the underlying mechanism revealed that sugammadex-induced activation of mitochondria-dependent apoptosis associates with depletion of neuronal cholesterol levels. Furthermore SUG increase CytC, AIF, Smac/Diablo and CASP-3 protein expression in cells in culture. Potential association of SUG-induced alteration in cholesterol homeostasis with oxidative stress and apoptosis activation occurs. Furthermore, resistance/sensitivity to oxidative stress differs between neuronal cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M Palanca
- Department of Surgery/Anaesthesiology, School of Medicine and Odontology, University of Valencia, Spain
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302
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Shak JR, Vidal JE, Klugman KP. Influence of bacterial interactions on pneumococcal colonization of the nasopharynx. Trends Microbiol 2012; 21:129-35. [PMID: 23273566 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2012.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 11/13/2012] [Accepted: 11/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) is a common commensal inhabitant of the nasopharynx and a frequent etiologic agent in serious diseases such as pneumonia, otitis media, bacteremia, and meningitis. Multiple pneumococcal strains can colonize the nasopharynx, which is also home to many other bacterial species. Intraspecies and interspecies interactions influence pneumococcal carriage in important ways. Co-colonization by two or more pneumococcal strains has implications for vaccine serotype replacement, carriage detection, and pneumonia diagnostics. Interactions between the pneumococcus and other bacterial species alter carriage prevalence, modulate virulence, and affect biofilm formation. By examining these interactions, this review highlights how the bacterial ecosystem of the nasopharynx changes the nature and course of pneumococcal carriage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua R Shak
- Molecules to Mankind Program and Graduate Program in Population Biology, Ecology, and Evolution, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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303
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Controversies in neurology, Vienna, 2012: Steroids in bacterial meningitis: no. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2012; 120:343-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-012-0939-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Accepted: 11/29/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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304
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Barichello T, Generoso JS, Collodel A, Moreira AP, Almeida SMD. Pathophysiology of acute meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and adjunctive therapy approaches. ARQUIVOS DE NEURO-PSIQUIATRIA 2012; 70:366-72. [PMID: 22618789 DOI: 10.1590/s0004-282x2012000500011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2012] [Accepted: 02/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Pneumococcal meningitis is a life-threatening disease characterized by an acute purulent infection affecting piamater, arachnoid and the subarachnoid space. The intense inflammatory host's response is potentially fatal and contributes to the neurological sequelae. Streptococcus pneumoniae colonizes the nasopharynx, followed by bacteremia, microbial invasion and blood-brain barrier traversal. S. pneumoniae is recognized by antigen-presenting cells through the binding of Toll-like receptors inducing the activation of factor nuclear kappa B or mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways and subsequent up-regulation of lymphocyte populations and expression of numerous proteins involved in inflammation and immune response. Many brain cells can produce cytokines, chemokines and others pro-inflammatory molecules in response to bacteria stimuli, as consequence, polymorphonuclear are attracted, activated and released in large amounts of superoxide anion and nitric oxide, leading to the peroxynitrite formation, generating oxidative stress. This cascade leads to lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial damage, blood-brain barrier breakdown contributing to cell injury during pneumococcal meningitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Barichello
- Laboratório de Microbiologia Experimental, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Translacional em Medicina, Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, Criciúma, SC, Brazil.
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305
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McCaffrey G, Davis TP. Physiology and pathophysiology of the blood-brain barrier: P-glycoprotein and occludin trafficking as therapeutic targets to optimize central nervous system drug delivery. J Investig Med 2012; 60:10.231/JIM.0b013e318276de79. [PMID: 23138008 PMCID: PMC3851303 DOI: 10.231/jim.0b013e318276de79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a physical and metabolic barrier that separates the central nervous system from the peripheral circulation. Central nervous system drug delivery across the BBB is challenging, primarily because of the physical restriction of paracellular diffusion between the endothelial cells that comprise the microvessels of the BBB and the activity of efflux transporters that quickly expel back into the capillary lumen a wide variety of xenobiotics. Therapeutic manipulation of protein trafficking is emerging as a novel means of modulating protein function, and in this minireview, the targeting of the trafficking of 2 key BBB proteins, P-glycoprotein and occludin, is presented as a novel, reversible means of optimizing central nervous system drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwen McCaffrey
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, 1501 N. Campbell Ave, Tucson, AZ 85745
| | - Thomas P. Davis
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, 1501 N. Campbell Ave, Tucson, AZ 85745
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306
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Barichello T, Ceretta RA, Generoso JS, Moreira AP, Simões LR, Comim CM, Quevedo J, Vilela MC, Zuardi AW, Crippa JA, Teixeira AL. Cannabidiol reduces host immune response and prevents cognitive impairments in Wistar rats submitted to pneumococcal meningitis. Eur J Pharmacol 2012; 697:158-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2012.09.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2012] [Revised: 09/12/2012] [Accepted: 09/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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307
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McCaffrey G, Davis TP. Physiology and pathophysiology of the blood-brain barrier: P-glycoprotein and occludin trafficking as therapeutic targets to optimize central nervous system drug delivery. J Investig Med 2012; 60:1131-40. [PMID: 23138008 PMCID: PMC3851303 DOI: 10.2310/jim.0b013e318276de79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a physical and metabolic barrier that separates the central nervous system from the peripheral circulation. Central nervous system drug delivery across the BBB is challenging, primarily because of the physical restriction of paracellular diffusion between the endothelial cells that comprise the microvessels of the BBB and the activity of efflux transporters that quickly expel back into the capillary lumen a wide variety of xenobiotics. Therapeutic manipulation of protein trafficking is emerging as a novel means of modulating protein function, and in this minireview, the targeting of the trafficking of 2 key BBB proteins, P-glycoprotein and occludin, is presented as a novel, reversible means of optimizing central nervous system drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwen McCaffrey
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85745, USA.
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308
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Affiliation(s)
- Diederik van de Beek
- Department of Neurology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, 1100DD Amsterdam, Netherlands.
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309
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Abstract
Bacterial meningitis kills or maims about a fifth of people with the disease. Early antibiotic treatment improves outcomes, but the effectiveness of widely available antibiotics is threatened by global emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria. New antibiotics, such as fluoroquinolones, could have a role in these circumstances, but clinical data to support this notion are scarce. Additionally, whether or not adjunctive anti-inflammatory therapies (eg, dexamethasone) improve outcomes in patients with bacterial meningitis remains controversial; in resource-poor regions, where the disease burden is highest, dexamethasone is ineffective. Other adjunctive therapeutic strategies, such as glycerol, paracetamol, and induction of hypothermia, are being tested further. Therefore, bacterial meningitis is a substantial and evolving therapeutic challenge. We review this challenge, with a focus on strategies to optimise antibiotic efficacy in view of increasingly drug-resistant bacteria, and discuss the role of current and future adjunctive therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diederik van de Beek
- Department of Neurology, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
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310
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BORCHORST S, MØLLER K. The role of dexamethasone in the treatment of bacterial meningitis - a systematic review. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2012; 56:1210-21. [PMID: 22524556 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-6576.2012.02698.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Corticosteroids are used as an adjunct to antibiotics in the treatment of bacterial meningitis in an attempt to attenuate the intrathecal inflammatory response and thereby reduce mortality and morbidity. The purpose of the present paper is to provide a review of clinical studies of corticosteroids in the treatment of bacterial meningitis. Relevant literature was found in PubMed, the Cochrane databases, and references in studies. Forty-four publications of relevance were identified, comprising 29 publications of randomised studies, 10 publications reporting either non- or quasi-randomised studies, and five reporting retrospective studies, and nine meta-analyses. Taken together, dexamethasone treatment may be associated with a lower mortality in adults and fewer neurological and auditory sequelae in adults and children from high-income countries, in particular in adults suffering from pneumococcal meningitis. In contrast, studies conducted in developing countries have yielded less favourable results.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. BORCHORST
- Department of Anaesthesia; Glostrup Hospital; Glostrup; Denmark
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311
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Mitchell AJ, Yau B, McQuillan JA, Ball HJ, Too LK, Abtin A, Hertzog P, Leib SL, Jones CA, Gerega SK, Weninger W, Hunt NH. Inflammasome-Dependent IFN-γ Drives Pathogenesis inStreptococcus pneumoniaeMeningitis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 189:4970-80. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1201687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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312
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Parthasarathy G, Philipp MT. Review: apoptotic mechanisms in bacterial infections of the central nervous system. Front Immunol 2012; 3:306. [PMID: 23060884 PMCID: PMC3463897 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2012] [Accepted: 09/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
In this article we review the apoptotic mechanisms most frequently encountered in bacterial infections of the central nervous system (CNS). We focus specifically on apoptosis of neural cells (neurons and glia), and provide first an overview of the phenomenon of apoptosis itself and its extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. We then describe apoptosis in the context of infectious diseases and inflammation caused by bacteria, and review its role in the pathogenesis of the most relevant bacterial infections of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geetha Parthasarathy
- Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University Covington, LA, USA
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313
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Genetic variation in inflammasome genes is associated with outcome in bacterial meningitis. Immunogenetics 2012; 65:9-16. [DOI: 10.1007/s00251-012-0653-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Accepted: 09/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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314
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Effects of B7-H3 on the inflammatory response and expression of MMP-9 in mice with pneumococcal meningitis. J Mol Neurosci 2012; 50:146-53. [PMID: 23054584 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-012-9885-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2012] [Accepted: 09/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
B7-H3, a new member of the B7 superfamily, plays a key role in the regulation of T cell-mediated immune responses. Our previous work showed that B7-H3 strongly augmented both LPS- and bacterial lipoprotein-induced NF-κB activation and inflammatory response, and soluble B7-H3 was elevated in CSF and plasma of patients with bacterial meningitis. MMP-9 has been implicated in blood-brain barrier disruption, inflammation, and vasculitis during the pathogenesis of bacterial meningitis. In this study, we report that in a murine model of pneumococcal meningitis, B7-H3 treatment enhances inflammatory response in the meninges, upregulates MMP-9 expression in cerebral parenchyma, and deteriorates clinical disease status indicated by weight loss and impaired movement ability. In vitro results showed that B7-H3 augmented MMP-9 secretion from Streptococcus pneumoniae-stimulated microglia cells. Thus, our data indicate that B7-H3 contributes to the development of pneumococcal meningitis by exaggerating inflammatory responses and upregulating MMP-9 activity in CNS, which ultimately lead to neuronal injury.
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315
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Mook-Kanamori BB, Fritz D, Brouwer MC, van der Ende A, van de Beek D. Intracerebral hemorrhages in adults with community associated bacterial meningitis in adults: should we reconsider anticoagulant therapy? PLoS One 2012; 7:e45271. [PMID: 23028898 PMCID: PMC3441739 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 08/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective To study the incidence, clinical presentation and outcome of intracranial hemorrhagic complications in adult patients with community associated bacterial meningitis. Methods Nationwide prospective cohort study from all hospitals in the Netherlands, from 1 March 2006, through 31 December 2010. Results Of the 860 episodes of bacterial meningitis that were included, 24 were diagnosed with intracranial hemorrhagic complications: 8 upon presentation and 16 during clinical course. Clinical presentation between patients with or without intracranial hemorrhage was similar. Causative bacteria were Streptococcus pneumoniae in 16 patients (67%), Staphylococcus aureus in 5 (21%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Listeria monocytogenes both in 1 patient (4%). Occurrence of intracranial hemorrhage was associated with death (63% vs. 15%, P<0.001) and unfavorable outcome (94% vs. 34%, P<0.001). The use of anticoagulants on admission was associated with a higher incidence of intracranial hemorrhages (odds ratio 5.84, 95% confidence interval 2.17–15.76). Conclusion Intracranial hemorrhage is a rare but devastating complication in patients with community-associated bacterial meningitis. Since anticoagulant therapy use is associated with increased risk for intracranial hemorrhage, physicians may consider reversing or temporarily discontinuing anticoagulation in patients with bacterial meningitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry B. Mook-Kanamori
- Department of Neurology, Center of Infection and Immunity Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Daan Fritz
- Department of Neurology, Center of Infection and Immunity Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Matthijs C. Brouwer
- Department of Neurology, Center of Infection and Immunity Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Arie van der Ende
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Center of Infection and Immunity Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- The Netherlands Reference Laboratory for Bacterial Meningitis, Center of Infection and Immunity Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Diederik van de Beek
- Department of Neurology, Center of Infection and Immunity Amsterdam, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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317
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Barichello T, Fagundes GD, Generoso JS, Paula Moreira A, Costa CS, Zanatta JR, Simões LR, Petronilho F, Dal-Pizzol F, Carvalho Vilela M, Lucio Teixeira A. Brain-blood barrier breakdown and pro-inflammatory mediators in neonate rats submitted meningitis by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Brain Res 2012; 1471:162-8. [PMID: 22796596 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.06.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Revised: 06/19/2012] [Accepted: 06/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Neonatal meningitis is an illness characterized by inflammation of the meninges and occurring within the birth and the first 28 days of life. Invasive infection by Streptococcus pneumoniae, meningitis and sepsis, in neonate is associated with prolonged rupture of membranes; maternal colonization/illness, prematurity, high mortality and 50% of cases have some form of disability. For this purpose, we measured brain levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, CINC-1, oxidative damage, enzymatic defense activity and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity in neonatal Wistar rats submitted to pneumococcal meningitis. The cytokines increased prior to the BBB breakdown and this breakdown occurred in the hippocampus at 18 h and in the cortex at 12h after pneumococcal meningitis induction. The time-dependent association between the complex interactions among cytokines, chemokine may be responsible for the BBB breakdown and neonatal pneumococcal severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Barichello
- Laboratório de Microbiologia Experimental e Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Translacional em Medicina, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, Criciúma, SC, Brazil.
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318
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Brouwer MC, van der Ende A, Baas F, van de Beek D. Genetic variation in GLCCI1 and dexamethasone in bacterial meningitis. J Infect 2012; 65:465-7. [PMID: 22796022 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2012.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2012] [Accepted: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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319
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Mook-Kanamori B, Geldhoff M, Troost D, van der Poll T, van de Beek D. Characterization of a pneumococcal meningitis mouse model. BMC Infect Dis 2012; 12:71. [PMID: 22455545 PMCID: PMC3364848 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-12-71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Accepted: 03/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND S. pneumoniae is the most common causative agent of meningitis, and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. We aimed to develop an integrated and representative pneumococcal meningitis mouse model resembling the human situation. METHODS Adult mice (C57BL/6) were inoculated in the cisterna magna with increasing doses of S. pneumoniae serotype 3 colony forming units (CFU; n = 24, 104, 105, 106 and 107 CFU) and survival studies were performed. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), brain, blood, spleen, and lungs were collected. Subsequently, mice were inoculated with 104 CFU S. pneumoniae serotype 3 and sacrificed at 6 (n = 6) and 30 hours (n = 6). Outcome parameters were bacterial outgrowth, clinical score, and cytokine and chemokine levels (using Luminex®) in CSF, blood and brain. Meningeal inflammation, neutrophil infiltration, parenchymal and subarachnoidal hemorrhages, microglial activation and hippocampal apoptosis were assessed in histopathological studies. RESULTS Lower doses of bacteria delayed onset of illness and time of death (median survival CFU 104, 56 hrs; 105, 38 hrs, 106, 28 hrs. 107, 24 hrs). Bacterial titers in brain and CSF were similar in all mice at the end-stage of disease independent of inoculation dose, though bacterial outgrowth in the systemic compartment was less at lower inoculation doses. At 30 hours after inoculation with 104 CFU of S. pneumoniae, blood levels of KC, IL6, MIP-2 and IFN- γ were elevated, as were brain homogenate levels of KC, MIP-2, IL-6, IL-1β and RANTES. Brain histology uniformly showed meningeal inflammation at 6 hours, and, neutrophil infiltration, microglial activation, and hippocampal apoptosis at 30 hours. Parenchymal and subarachnoidal and cortical hemorrhages were seen in 5 of 6 and 3 of 6 mice at 6 and 30 hours, respectively. CONCLUSION We have developed and validated a murine model of pneumococcal meningitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry Mook-Kanamori
- Department of Neurology, Center of Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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320
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Abstract
Among bacteria that reach the central nervous system (CNS), Listeria monocytogenes (Lm) is one of deadliest, in human and ruminant. This facultative intracellular bacterium has the particularity to induce meningitis, meningoencephalitis and rhombencephalitis. Mechanisms by which Lm accesses the CNS remain poorly understood, but two major routes of infection have been proposed, based on clinical, in vitro and in vivo observations. A retrograde neural route is likely to occur in ruminants upon crossing of the oral epithelium, and this probably accounts for the observation that Lm induces almost exclusively rhombencephalitis in these animals. In contrast, the hematogenous route is likely the most frequent in human, in whom bacteria circulating in the blood, either free or associated with leukocytes are thought to breach the blood-brain barrier. New animal models that faithfully reproduce the hallmarks of human neurolisterisosis will allow addressing the molecular mechanisms underlying Lm ability to induce CNS disease, and improve our understanding of the pathophysiology of this deadly infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Disson
- Microbes and Host Barriers Group, French National Reference Center and WHO Collaborating Center for Listeria, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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321
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