The error-related negativity (ERN) and psychopathology: toward an endophenotype

Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: a dual-process framework

It is widely acknowledged that emotions can be regulated in an astonishing variety of ways. Most research to date has focused on explicit (effortful) forms of emotion regulation. However, there is growing research interest in implicit (automatic) forms of emotion regulation. To organise emerging findings, we present a dual-process framework that integrates explicit and implicit forms of emotion regulation, and argue that both forms of regulation are necessary for well-being. In the first section of this review, we provide a broad overview of the construct of emotion regulation, with an emphasis on explicit and implicit processes. In the second section, we focus on explicit emotion regulation, considering both neural mechanisms that are associated with these processes and their experiential and physiological consequences. In the third section, we turn to several forms of implicit emotion regulation, and integrate the burgeoning literature in this area. We conclude by outlining open questions and areas for future research.

The effects of induced state negative affect on performance monitoring processes

Previous research suggests that performance-monitoring processes are related to personality traits; relationships with affective states, however, remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to replicate and extend previous findings that induced state negative affect alters electrophysiological reflections of performance monitoring. High-density event-related potentials (ERPs) were obtained from 69 healthy individuals (41 female, 28 male) who completed an Eriksen flanker task and received either encouraging or derogatory feedback based on mean reaction times (RTs) for 30-trial sub-blocks. Affective state, behavioral measures (i.e. error rates, RTs) and ERP measures [i.e. error-related negativity (ERN), post-error positivity (Pe) and N2] were assessed. Reaction times did not differ between feedback groups. Participants who received derogatory feedback committed more errors over time. Despite changes in affect, no significant group differences were demonstrated for behavioral or ERP measures of performance monitoring. Increases in vigilance were associated with more negative N2 amplitudes; no other changes in affective state were associated with changes in ERP measures. Results are consistent with findings suggesting performance-monitoring processes are only slightly affected by changes in affective state and fail to replicate previous studies suggesting the ERN is related to state changes in affect-supporting the possibility of the ERN as an endophenotype.

Feedback and reward processing in high-functioning autism

Individuals with high-functioning autism often display deficits in social interactions and high-level cognitive functions. Such deficits may be influenced by poor ability to process feedback and rewards. The feedback-related negativity (FRN) is an event-related potential (ERP) that is more negative following losses than gains. We examined FRN amplitude in 25 individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and 25 age- and IQ-matched typically developing control participants who completed a guessing task with monetary loss/gain feedback. Both groups demonstrated a robust FRN that was more negative to loss trials than gain trials; however, groups did not differ in FRN amplitude as a function of gain or loss trials. N1 and P300 amplitudes did not differentiate groups. FRN amplitude was positively correlated with age in individuals with ASD, but not measures of intelligence, anxiety, behavioral inhibition, or autism severity. Given previous findings of reduced-amplitude error-related negativity (ERN) in ASD, we propose that individuals with ASD may process external, concrete, feedback similar to typically developing individuals, but have difficulty with internal, more abstract, regulation of performance.

Longer term test-retest reliability of error-related brain activity

The error-related negativity (ERN) is a negative deflection in the event-related potential (ERP) following an erroneous response and is thought to reflect activity of the anterior cingulate cortex. There is accumulating evidence that the component has trait-like properties; prior evidence further suggests test-retest reliability estimates ranging from .40 to .82 over a period of 2 to 6 weeks. The present study examined temporal stability over a longer time period. Error-related brain activity was recorded from 26 subjects during an arrow version of the flankers task on two occasions separated by 1.5 to 2.5 years. Depending on the scoring method, test-retest reliability of the ERN ranged from .56 to .67. These data are consistent with previous suggestions that the ERN is a moderately stable, trait-like neural measure.

Anxiety not only increases, but also alters early error-monitoring functions

Anxiety has profound influences on a wide range of cognitive processes, including action monitoring. Event-related brain potential (ERP) studies have shown that anxiety can boost early error detection mechanisms, as reflected by an enhanced error-related negativity (ERN) following errors in high-anxious, as compared with low-anxious, participants. This observation is consistent with the assumption of a gain control mechanism exerted by anxiety onto error-related brain responses within the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). However, whether anxiety simply enhances or, rather, alters early error detection mechanisms remains unsolved. In this study, we compared the performance of low- versus high-trait-anxious participants during a go/no-go task while high-density EEG was recorded. The two groups showed comparable behavioral performance, although levels of state anxiety increased following the task for high-anxious participants only. ERP results confirmed that the ERN/Ne to errors was enhanced for high-anxious, relative to low-anxious, participants. However, complementary topographic analyses revealed that the scalp map of the ERN/Ne was not identical between the two groups, suggesting that anxiety did not merely increase early error detection mechanisms, but also led to a qualitative change in the early appraisal of errors. Inverse solution results confirmed a shift within the ACC for the localization of neural generators underlying the ERN/Ne scalp map in high-anxious participants, corroborating the assumption of an early effect of anxiety on early error-monitoring functions. These results shed new light on the dynamic interplay between anxiety and error-monitoring functions in the human brain.

Absorbed in the task: Personality measures predict engagement during task performance as tracked by error negativity and asymmetrical frontal activity

We hypothesized that interactions between traits and context predict task engagement, as measured by the amplitude of the error-related negativity (ERN), performance, and relative frontal activity asymmetry (RFA). In Study 1, we found that drive for reward, absorption, and constraint independently predicted self-reported persistence. We hypothesized that, during a prolonged monotonous task, absorption would predict initial ERN amplitudes, constraint would delay declines in ERN amplitudes and deterioration of performance, and drive for reward would predict left RFA when a reward could be obtained. Study 2, employing EEG recordings, confirmed our predictions. The results showed that most traits that have in previous research been related to ERN amplitudes have a relationship with the motivational trait persistence in common. In addition, trait-context combinations that are likely associated with increased engagement predict larger ERN amplitudes and RFA. Together, these results support the hypothesis that engagement may be a common underlying factor predicting ERN amplitude.

Predictors of performance monitoring abilities following traumatic brain injury: the influence of negative affect and cognitive sequelae

Performance monitoring is a cognitive control process modulated by both cognitive and affective variables. This study examined the relative contributions of negative affect (NA) and cognitive sequelae to performance monitoring dysfunction following severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). We used the error-related negativity (ERN) and post-error positivity (Pe) components of the event-related potential (ERP) to test the hypothesis that NA and cognitive sequelae would predict performance monitoring dysfunction beyond time since injury, and injury severity. Nineteen survivors of severe TBI completed neuropsychological tests, measures of NA, and a computerized Stroop task. Scores on NA and neuropsychological measures were standardized to form magnitude of cognitive sequelae and negative affect composite scores. Separate hierarchical regression analyses with ERN and Pe amplitudes as dependent variables and injury severity, time since injury, magnitude of cognitive sequelae, and NA as independent variables indicated that NA and cognitive sequelae significantly predicted ERN amplitude, with a larger relative contribution of NA than cognitive sequelae. Increased levels of NA were associated with decreased amplitude ERN. Cognitive sequelae, but not NA, predicted Pe amplitude. Injury severity and time since injury were not significant predictors. Results suggest that both NA and cognitive sequelae play critical roles in performance monitoring decrements following TBI and indicate a possible dissociation between the ERN and Pe, with the ERN more related to affective processes and the Pe to cognitive processes.

Clarifying relations between dispositional aggression and brain potential response: overlapping and distinct contributions of impulsivity and stress reactivity

Impulsive-aggressive individuals exhibit deficits in amplitude of the P3 brain potential response, however, it remains unclear how separable dispositional traits account for this association. The current study sought to clarify the basis of this association by examining contributions of trait impulsiveness and stress reactivity to the observed relationship between dispositional aggression and amplitude of the P3 brain potential response in a visual novelty-oddball procedure. A significant negative association was found between aggressiveness and amplitude of P3 response to both target and novel stimuli over frontal-central scalp sites. Impulsivity showed a parallel inverse relationship with P3 amplitude, attributable to its overlap with dispositional aggression. In contrast, stress reactivity did not exhibit a zero-order association with P3 amplitude, but modestly predicted P3 in a positive direction after accounting for its overlap with aggression. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for individual difference variables and brain processes underlying impulsive-aggressive behavior.

The relation of self-efficacy and error-related self-regulation

Relations between a modifiable psychosocial factor, self-efficacy (SE), and behavioral and neural indices of self-regulation, including post-error behavior, the error-related negativity (ERN), and error positivity (Pe) were examined in young adults during a flanker task emphasizing either accuracy or speed. SE was predicted to be associated with larger ERN and Pe amplitudes, as well as greater post-error behavioral performance during task conditions emphasizing accuracy, but not speed. Results showed that higher SE was associated with greater post-error response accuracy during the accuracy condition, but not the speed condition, and higher SE was related with greater ERN amplitudes across instruction conditions. Further, ERN amplitude mediated the relationship between SE and post-error response accuracy in the accuracy condition. These findings emphasize the role of motivation and incentive on the self-regulatory system and suggest that SE is beneficially related to self-regulatory processes and outcomes.

Error-related negativity abnormalities in generalized anxiety disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder

Enhanced error-related negativity (ERN) has been associated with anxiety among both non-clinical and clinical populations. However, whether it is abnormal among adult patients with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is still unknown. The present study investigated it across GAD and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Event related brain potentials (ERPs) were recorded from a group of 27 GAD patients, 25 OCD patients and 27 healthy control participants during a modified Erikson Flankers task. ERP difference waveforms were obtained by subtracting ERP to correct response (CRN) from ERP to error response (ERN). The Ne component of ERPs at medial frontal electrodes were analyzed and reported. The Ne component of ERP difference waveform was enhanced only in OCD patients, but not in GAD patients, as compared to the healthy controls. An exploratory analysis also revealed higher Ne amplitude of error trial waveforms in both GAD and OCD patients than in healthy controls, and an insignificant group difference in Ne component of correct trial waveforms. The Ne amplitude of error trial waveforms also correlated with Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAMA) scores and with Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD) scores across the three subject groups. The main findings of the present study suggest that error processing is altered in OCD but not in GAD, and that ERN abnormalities in GAD are possibly associated with an overactive response checking process or excessive response monitoring.

Error-related medial frontal theta activity predicts cingulate-related structural connectivity

Studies on electrophysiological signatures of error processing have focused on the medial frontal cortex, although widespread neuroanatomical networks support error/action monitoring. Here, electrophysiological responses to errors were combined with structural white matter diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to investigate the long-range anatomical networks that support error processing. The approach taken here was to link individual differences in error-related EEG responses to individual differences in white matter connectional anatomy. Twenty subjects performed a speeded instructed choice task (a variant of the Simon task) designed to elicit response errors, and also underwent DTI scanning in a separate session. In the EEG data, significantly enhanced theta (4-8 Hz) oscillations were observed over medial frontal electrodes (centered on FCz) during response errors. Mid-frontal scalp sites (likely reflecting medial frontal cortex activity) also functioned as a strong "hub" for information flow, measured through theta-band phase synchronization degree. Next, a dipole source of the error-related theta-band activity was localized for each subject, accounting for approximately 80% of the topographical variance. Correlating individual differences in medial frontal theta dynamics with white matter tracts linking these dipole sources to the rest of the brain revealed that subjects with stronger error-related theta also had stronger white matter connectivity with the ventral striatum and inferior frontal gyrus. Further, subjects in whom medial frontal regions acted as a stronger synchronization "hub" had stronger connectivity between the dipole source location and the corpus callosum and dorsomedial prefrontal white matter pathways. These findings provide novel evidence for the role of widespread fronto-striatal networks in monitoring actions and signaling behavioral errors.

Diminished error processing in smokers during smoking cue exposure

Deficits in error processing may contribute to the continuation of impulsive behaviors such as smoking. Previous studies show deficits in error processing among substance abuse patients. However, these studies were all conducted during affectively neutral conditions. Deficits in error processing in smokers may become more pronounced under affectively challenging conditions, such as during smoking cue exposure. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether smokers showed initial error processing deficits, as measured with the error-related negativity (ERN), and decreased motivational significance attributed to an error, as measured with the error positivity (Pe) when exposed to smoking cues. Additionally, we examined the nature of the ERN and Pe amplitudes in more detail by investigating their associations with trait impulsivity, nicotine dependence levels and cigarette craving. Event-related potentials were measured during a modified Erikson flanker task in both smokers and non-smoking controls. Smokers showed reduced ERN and Pe amplitudes after making an error, accompanied by diminished post-error slowing of reaction times. These results suggest that initial error processing and motivational significance attributed to an error are affected in smokers during smoking cue exposure. Furthermore, individual variation in impulsivity and nicotine dependence was associated with reduced ERN amplitudes.

In the mood for adaptation: how affect regulates conflict-driven control

Cognitive conflict plays an important role in tuning cognitive control to the situation at hand. On the basis of earlier findings demonstrating emotional modulations of conflict processing, we predicted that affective states may adaptively regulate goal-directed behavior that is driven by conflict. We tested this hypothesis by measuring conflict-driven control adaptations following experimental induction of four different mood states that could be differentiated along the dimensions of arousal and pleasure. After mood states were induced, 91 subjects performed a flanker task, which provided a measure of conflict adaptation. As predicted, pleasure level affected conflict adaptation: Less pleasure was associated with more conflict-driven control. Arousal level did not influence conflict adaptation. This study suggests that affect adaptively regulates cognitive control. Implications for future research and psychopathology are discussed.

Self-regulation in ADHD: the role of error processing

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by persistent and impairing developmentally inappropriate levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Such behavioral dysregulation may be a consequence of deficits in self-monitoring or adaptive control, both of which are required for adaptive behavior. Processing of contextual demands, ongoing monitoring of one's behavior to evaluate whether it is appropriate for a particular situation, and adjusting behavior when it is suboptimal are components of self-regulation. This review examines and integrates the emerging literature on error-processing and adaptive control as components of self-regulation into the prominent etiological theories of ADHD. Available data on error-processing, as reflected in event-related potentials (ERN and Pe) and behavioral performance, suggest that both early error detection and later error-evaluation may be diminished in ADHD, thereby interfering with adaptive control processes. However, variability in results limit broad conclusions, particularly for early error detection. A range of methodological issues, including ERP parameters and sample and task characteristics, likely contribute to this variability, and recommendations for future work are presented. The emerging literature on error-processing and adaptive control informs etiological theories of ADHD in general and may provide a method for testing self-regulation models in particular.

Reflecting on God

The world is a vast and complex place that can sometimes generate feelings of uncertainty and distress for its inhabitants. Although religion is associated with a sense of meaning and order, it remains unclear whether religious belief can actually cause people to feel less anxiety and distress. To test the anxiolytic power of religion, we conducted two experiments focusing on the error-related negativity (ERN)—a neural signal that arises from the anterior cingulate cortex and is associated with defensive responses to errors. The results indicate that for believers, conscious and nonconscious religious primes cause a decrease in ERN amplitude. In contrast, priming nonbelievers with religious concepts causes an increase in ERN amplitude. Overall, examining basic neurophysiological processes reveals the power of religion to act as a buffer against anxious reactions to self-generated, generic errors—but only for individuals who believe.

Effects of task-relevant incentives on the electrophysiological correlates of error processing in major depressive disorder

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with action-monitoring dysfunction-particularly, disrupted error processing. Whether such dysregulation is further modulated by task incentives is largely unknown. The goal of this study was to investigate possible dysfunctions in error processing in MDD as a function of varying task incentives and clinical profile. To this end, we recorded the error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) in 18 MDD participants and 18 healthy controls during a Stroop task that intermixed no-incentive and reward trials. Relative to controls, MDD participants showed (1) larger ERN irrespective of task incentives, and (2) reduced Pe during reward (but not no-incentive) trials. Moreover, among MDD participants, Pe amplitudes were negatively correlated with depression severity and clinical symptoms. The present findings highlight distinct effects of task incentives on electrophysiological components of error processing and are interpreted within current theories of action monitoring and incentive processing in depression.

The impact of perfectionism and anxiety traits on action monitoring in major depressive disorder

Perfectionism and anxiety features are involved in the clinical presentation and neurobiology of major depressive disorder (MDD). In MDD, cognitive control mechanisms such as action monitoring can adequately be investigated applying electrophysiological registrations of the error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe). It is also known that traits of perfectionism and anxiety influence ERN amplitudes in healthy subjects. The current study explores the impact of perfectionism and anxiety traits on action monitoring in MDD. A total of 39 MDD patients performed a flankers task during an event-related potential (ERP) session and completed the multidimensional perfectionism scale (MPS) with its concern over mistakes (CM) and doubt about actions (DA) subscales and the trait form of the State Trait Anxiety Inventory. Multiple regression analyses with stepwise backward elimination revealed MPS-DA to be a significant predictor (R²:0.22) for the ERN outcomes, and overall MPS (R²:0.13) and MPS-CM scores (R²:0.18) to have significant predictive value for the Pe amplitudes. Anxiety traits did not have a predictive capacity for the ERPs. MPS-DA clearly affected the ERN, and overall MPS and MPS-CM influenced the Pe, whereas no predictive capacity was found for anxiety traits. The manifest impact of perfectionism on patients’ error-related ERPs may contribute to our understanding of the action-monitoring process and the functional significance of the Pe in MDD. The divergent findings for perfectionism and anxiety features also indicate that the wide range of various affective personality styles might exert a different effect on action monitoring in MDD, awaiting further investigation.

Impact of monetary incentives on cognitive performance and error monitoring following sleep deprivation

STUDY OBJECTIVES

To examine whether monetary incentives attenuate the negative effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance in a flanker task that requires higher-level cognitive-control processes, including error monitoring.

DESIGN

Twenty-four healthy adults aged 18 to 23 years were randomly divided into 2 subject groups: one received and the other did not receive monetary incentives for performance accuracy. Both subject groups performed a flanker task and underwent electroencephalographic recordings for event-related brain potentials after normal sleep and after 1 night of total sleep deprivation in a within-subject, counterbalanced, repeated-measures study design.

RESULTS

Monetary incentives significantly enhanced the response accuracy and reaction time variability under both normal sleep and sleep-deprived conditions, and they reduced the effects of sleep deprivation on the subjective effort level, the amplitude of the error-related negativity (an error-related event-related potential component), and the latency of the P300 (an event-related potential variable related to attention processes). However, monetary incentives could not attenuate the effects of sleep deprivation on any measures of behavior performance, such as the response accuracy, reaction time variability, or posterror accuracy adjustments; nor could they reduce the effects of sleep deprivation on the amplitude of the Pe, another error-related event-related potential component.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that motivation incentives selectively reduce the effects of total sleep deprivation on some brain activities, but they cannot attenuate the effects of sleep deprivation on performance decrements in tasks that require high-level cognitive-control processes. Thus, monetary incentives and sleep deprivation may act through both common and different mechanisms to affect cognitive performance.

Variants of the SLC6A3 (DAT1) polymorphism affect performance monitoring-related cortical evoked potentials that are associated with ADHD

Although the 10-repeat (10R) variant of the dopamine transporter gene (DAT1 or SLC6A3) is suggested to be a risk allele for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) no relationships between DAT1 and measures of cognition in children with ADHD have yet been demonstrated. We studied neurophysiological correlates of performance monitoring during a feedback-based learning task by measuring cortical event-related potentials (ERPs) in a group of 65 10-13-year-old children half of whom were diagnosed as ADHD. The first part of the study investigates correlations between parent-reported behaviour problems and several performance monitoring components, while the second part investigates the relationship between DAT1 and these components. Specifically ADHD problems correlated significantly with an error-related positivity (Pe) and a feedback-anticipatory negativity (the SPN). Only these two components discriminated between the DAT1 10/10R and 9R carriers. The 10/10R carriers showed a smaller Pe to errors and a smaller SPN in anticipation of negative feedback, particularly with learning.

Altered cingulate sub-region activation accounts for task-related dissociation in ERN amplitude as a function of obsessive-compulsive symptoms

Larger error-related negativities (ERNs) have been consistently found in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) patients, and are thought to reflect the activities of a hyperactive cortico-striatal circuit during action monitoring. We previously observed that obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptomatic students (non-patients) have larger ERNs during errors in a response competition task, yet smaller ERNs in a reinforcement learning task. The finding of a task-specific dissociation suggests that distinct yet partially overlapping medio-frontal systems underlie the ERN in different tasks, and that OC symptoms are associated with functional differences in these systems. Here, we used EEG source localization to identify why OC symptoms are associated with hyperactive ERNs to errors yet hypoactive ERNs when selecting maladaptive actions. At rest, OC symptomatology predicted greater activity in rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) and lower activity in dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC). When compared to a group with low OC symptom scores, the high OC group had greater rACC reactivity during errors in the response competition task and less deactivation of dACC activity during errors in the reinforcement learning task. The degree of activation in these areas correlated with ERN amplitudes during both tasks in the high OC group, but not in the low group. Interactive anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) systems associated avoidance of maladaptive actions were intact in the high OC group, but were related to poorer performance on a third task: probabilistic reversal learning. These novel findings link both tonic and phasic activities in the ACC to action monitoring alterations, including dissociation in performance deficits, in OC symptomatic participants.

Functional 5-HT1a receptor polymorphism selectively modulates error-specific subprocesses of performance monitoring

Our study investigates the dependence of response monitoring and error detection on genetic influences modulating the serotonergic system. This was done using the event-related potentials (ERPs) after error (Ne/ERN) and correct trials (Nc/CRN). To induce a sufficient amount of errors, a standard flanker task was used. The subjects (N = 94) were genotyped for the functional 5-HT1A C(-1019)G polymorphism. The results show that the 5-HT1A C(-1019)G polymorphism specifically modulates error detection. Neurophysiological modulations on error detection were paralleled by a similar modulation of response slowing after an error, reflecting the behavioral adaptation. The 5-HT1A -1019 CC genotype group showed a larger Ne and stronger posterror slowing than the CG and GG genotype groups. More general processes of performance monitoring, as reflected in the Nc/CRN, were not affected. The finding that error-specific processes, but not general response monitoring processes, are modulated by the 5-HT1A C(-1019)G polymorphism is underlined by a wavelet analysis. In summary, the results suggest a specific effect of the 5-HT1A C(-1019)G polymorphism on error monitoring, as reflected in the Ne, and suggest a neurobiological dissociation between processes of error monitoring and general response monitoring at the level of the serotonin 1A receptor system.

Serotonin transporter genotype and action monitoring dysfunction: a possible substrate underlying increased vulnerability to depression

A variable number of tandem repeats (short (S) vs long (L)) in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) and a functional variant of a single-nucleotide polymorphism (rs25531) in 5-HTTLPR have been recently associated with increased risk for major depressive disorder (MDD). In particular, relative to L/L or L(A) homozygotes (hereafter referred to as L' participants), S carriers or L(g)-allele carriers (S' participants) have been found to have a higher probability of developing depression after stressful life events, although inconsistencies abound. Previous research indicates that patients with MDD are characterized by executive dysfunction and abnormal activation within the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), particularly in situations requiring adaptive behavioral adjustments following errors and response conflict (action monitoring). The goal of this study was to test whether psychiatrically healthy S' participants would show abnormalities similar to those of MDD subjects. To this end, 19 S' and 14 L' participants performed a modified Flanker task known to induce errors, response conflict, and activations in various ACC subdivisions during functional magnetic resonance imaging. As hypothesized, relative to L' participants, S' participants showed (1) impaired post-error and post-conflict behavioral adjustments; (2) larger error-related rostral ACC activation; and (3) lower conflict-related dorsal ACC activation. As similar behavioral and neural dysfunctions have been recently described in MDD patient samples, the current results raise the possibility that impaired action monitoring and associated ACC dysregulation may represent risk factors increased vulnerability to depression.

Error-related processing dysfunction in children aged 9 to 12 years presenting putative antecedents of schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

Intervention aimed at preventing schizophrenia may be most effective if targeted at specific, but modifiable, functional impairments that present during childhood. We have developed a novel method of screening community samples aged 9 to 12 years to identify children who present a triad of putative antecedents of schizophrenia (ASz), defined as 1) speech and/or motor development lags/problems; 2) internalizing, externalizing, and/or peer-relationship problems in the clinical range; and 3) psychotic-like experiences. This study examined whether ASz children display brain function abnormalities during error processing that are similar to those exhibited by adults with schizophrenia.

METHODS

Twenty-two ASz children and 26 typically developing (TD) children with no antecedents of schizophrenia completed an error-inducing Go/NoGo task during event-related potential recording. Group differences were examined in the amplitude and latency of four event-related potential components: the initial error-related negativity (ERN) and later error-positivity (Pe) elicited on false-alarm responses to NoGo trials, and the corresponding initial correct response negativity (CRN) and later correct response positivity (Pc) elicited during processing of correct responses to Go trials.

RESULTS

Relative to TD children, ASz children were characterized by reduced ERN amplitude but unaffected CRN, Pe, and Pc amplitudes. No group differences were observed in the latency of any component.

CONCLUSIONS

Children presenting a triad of putative antecedents of schizophrenia show error-processing dysfunction mimicking that observed in adults with schizophrenia using the same Go/NoGo paradigm. The ASz children displayed specific early error-processing deficits rather than a generalized deficit in self-monitoring.

Evidence for a deficit in the salience attribution to errors in smokers

The persisting use of substances despite of adverse consequences is one of the hallmarks of addictive behaviors such as cigarette smoking. In the present study we used event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate one aspect of adverse consequences: responses to errors in smokers versus non-smokers. The aim of this study was to determine whether cigarette smokers display error-processing deficits as measured using error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe). ERPs during an Eriksen flanker task were recorded from smokers and a non-smoking control group. Smokers showed the same ERN response as controls after making an error. However, the later Pe response was reduced as compared to the control group. On the behavioral level, we observed a trend towards increased error rates of smokers on incongruent trials. The present findings reveal that cigarette smoking is associated with reduced error processing. More specifically, while initial error processing seem intact, brain systems reflecting the motivational significance of a performance error seem compromised. It is argued that these cognitive deficits may cause or contribute to the persistence of smoking behavior and addictive behaviors in general.

The relationship between performance monitoring, satisfaction with life, and positive personality traits

Neural reflections of performance monitoring, including the error-related negativity (ERN) component of the event-related potential (ERP), are modulated by personality and affective constructs. Little is known, however, about the relationship between positive personality traits and neural indices of performance monitoring. We investigated the relationship between measures of positive personality traits, including satisfaction with life, dispositional optimism, and positive affect, and indices of performance monitoring in a sample of 45 neurologically-healthy individuals. Increased satisfaction with life was associated with decreased (i.e., less negative) ERN amplitude. Dispositional optimism and positive affect were not related to ERN amplitude. Results remained consistent when negative affect and measures of positive personality were accounted for using multiple regression. There were no relationships between measures of positive personality and the post-error positivity (Pe) or behavioral indices. Findings are consistent with an affective salience interpretation of the ERN, with errors potentially being less meaningful for individuals with higher satisfaction with life.

The way of our errors: theme and variations

Negative feedback, either internal or external, is a fundamental guide to human learning and performance. The neural system that underlies the monitoring of performance and the adjustment of behavior has been subject to multiple neuroimaging investigations that uniformly implicate the anterior cingulate cortex and other prefrontal structures as crucial to these executive functions. The present article describes a series of experiments that employed event-related potentials to study a variety of processes associated with internal or external feedback. Three medial-frontal negativities (error-related negativity, correct-response negativity, feedback-related negativity) are highlighted, each of which plays an important role in the monitoring and dynamic adjustment of behavior. Extensions of basic research on these ERPs to questions relevant to clinical-science are also provided.

Linking dimensional models of internalizing psychopathology to neurobiological systems: affect-modulated startle as an indicator of fear and distress disorders and affiliated traits

Integrative hierarchical models have sought to account for the extensive comorbidity between various internalizing disorders in terms of broad individual difference factors these disorders share. However, such models have been developed largely on the basis of self-report and diagnostic symptom data. Toward the goal of linking such models to neurobiological systems, we reviewed studies that have employed variants of the affect-modulated startle paradigm to investigate emotional processing in internalizing disorders as well as personality constructs known to be associated with these disorders. Specifically, we focused on four parameters of startle reactivity: fear-potentiated startle, inhibition of startle in the context of pleasant stimuli, context-potentiated startle, and general startle reactivity. On the basis of available data, we argue that these varying effects index differing neurobiological processes related to mood and anxiety disorders that are interpretable from the standpoint of dimensional models of the internalizing spectrum. Further, we contend that these empirical findings can feed back into and help reshape conceptualizations of internalizing disorders in ways that make them more amenable to neurobiological analysis.

Task-related dissociation in ERN amplitude as a function of obsessive-compulsive symptoms

Hyperactive cortico-striatal circuits including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) have been implicated to underlie obtrusive thoughts and repetitive behaviors in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Larger error-related negativities (ERNs) in OCD patients during simple flanker tasks have been proposed to reflect an amplified error signal in these hyperactive circuits. Such amplified error signals typically are associated with an adaptive change in response, yet in OCD these same repetitive responses persist to the point of distress and impairment. In contrast to this repetitive character of OC behavior, larger ERN amplitudes have been linked to better avoidance learning in reinforcement learning tasks. Study I thus investigated if OC symptomatology in non-patients predicted an enhanced ERN after suboptimal choices in a probabilistic learning task. Absent any behavioral differences, higher OC symptoms predicted smaller ERNs. Study II replicated this effect in an independent sample while also replicating findings of a larger ERN in a flanker task. There were no relevant behavioral differences in reinforcement learning or error monitoring as a function of symptom score. These findings implicate different, yet overlapping neural mechanisms underlying the negative deflection in the ERP following the execution of an erroneous motor response and the one following a suboptimal choice in a reinforcement learning paradigm. OC symptomatology may be dissociated in these neural systems, with hypoactivity in a system that enables learning to avoid maladaptive choices, and hyperactivity in another system that enables the same behavior to be repeated when it was assessed as not quite good enough the first time.