Synthesis and Optical Properties of Hybrid and Alloy Plasmonic Nanoparticles

Tunable plasmon resonances and two-dimensional anisotropy of angular optical response of overlapped nanoshells

Symmetry breaking of metallic nanoparticles results in many unique optical properties. We use the discrete dipole approximation method to study the optical properties of overlapped nanoshells which further break the rotational symmetry compared with the semishells. The optical properties of the nanoparticles can be tuned from the visible to near infrared regime by varying the geometry parameters and the hybrid components of nanoparticles. The calculated extinction spectra show the two-dimensional anisotropy of the angular optical response of the nanoparticles. The plasmon hybridization model provides a way to interpret the resonance modes of the nanoparticles. The tunable plasmon resonances, the enhanced local fields and the anisotropic optical properties suggest that the overlapped nanoshells have potential applications in surface-enhanced spectroscopy and "smart" coating in windows or display devices.

Plasmon dynamics in colloidal Au₂Cd alloy-CdSe core/shell nanocrystals

Metal-semiconductor nanocrystal heterostructures are model systems for understanding the interplay between the localized surface plasmon resonances in the metal domain and the relaxation of the excited carriers in the semiconductor domain. Here we report the synthesis of colloidal Au₂Cd (core)/CdSe (shell) nanocrystal heterostructures, which were characterized extensively with several structural and optical techniques, including time-resolved fluorescence and broad-band transient absorption spectroscopy (both below and above the CdSe band gap). The dynamics of the transient plasmon peak was dominated by the relaxation of hot carriers in the metal core, its spectral shape was independent of the pump wavelength, and the bleaching lifetime was about half a picosecond, comparable with the value found in the AuCd seeds used for the synthesis.

Spin-polarization transfer in colloidal magnetic-plasmonic Au/iron oxide hetero-nanocrystals

We report on the unprecedented direct observation of spin-polarization transfer across colloidal magneto-plasmonic Au@Fe-oxide core@shell nanocrystal heterostructures. A magnetic moment is induced into the Au domain when the magnetic shell contains a reduced Fe-oxide phase in direct contact with the noble metal. An increased hole density in the Au states suggested occurrence of a charge-transfer process concomitant to the magnetization transfer. The angular to spin magnetic moment ratio, m(orb)/m(spin), for the Au 5d states, which was found to be equal to 0.38, appeared to be unusually large when compared to previous findings. A mechanism relying on direct hybridization between the Au and Fe states at the core/shell interface is proposed to account for the observed transfer of the magnetic moment.

Formation of one-dimensional Ag-Au solid solution colloids with Au nanorods as seeds, their alloying mechanisms, and surface plasmon resonances

In this work, one dimensional (1D) Ag-Au solid solution nanoalloys were synthesized by rapidly diffusing Ag into the preformed Au nanorod (AuNR) seeds at ambient temperature in aqueous solution. By varying the molar ratio of AgCl/AuNR (in gold atoms), two kinds of 1D Ag-Au alloy nanostructures with a narrow size distribution--AgAu nanowires and Ag(33)Au(67) nanorods--could be obtained in high yields when NaCl and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) were used as an additive and capping reagent, respectively. Based on HRTEM imaging combined with a series of control experiments, it is conceivable that vacancy/defect-motivated interdiffusion of Ag and Au atoms coupled with oxidative etching is a crucial stage in the mechanism responsible for this room-temperature alloying process, and the subsequent conjugation of the fused Ag-Au alloyed nanostructures is associated with the formation of the AgAu nanowires. The resulting 1D Ag-Au nanoalloys form stable colloidal dispersions and show unique localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) peaks in the ensemble extinction spectra.

The growth and enhanced catalytic performance of Au@Pd core-shell nanodendrites

Au@Pd core-shell nanodendrites were synthesized by reducing H(2)PdCl(4) with ascorbic acid onto the surface of Au polyhedra at room temperature. The Au@Pd core-shell nanodendrites consisting of a Au core and nanoporous Pd shell, exhibited plasmonic properties and higher catalytic activity in comparison with Au@Pd core-shell nanocubes.

Gold nanorod plasmonic upconversion microlaser

Plasmonic-photonic interactions have stimulated significant interdisciplinary interest, leading to rapid innovations in solar design and biosensors. However, the development of an optically pumped plasmonic laser has failed to keep pace due to the difficulty of integrating a plasmonic gain material with a suitable pump source. In the present work, we develop a method for coating high quality factor toroidal optical cavities with gold nanorods, forming a photonic-plasmonic laser. By leveraging the two-photon upconversion capability of the nanorods, lasing at 581 nm with a 20 μW threshold is demonstrated.

Monodisperse pattern nanoalloying for synergistic intermetallic catalysis

Nanoscale alloys attract enormous research attentions in catalysis, magnetics, plasmonics and so on. Along with multicomponent synergy, quantum confinement and extreme large surface area of nanoalloys offer novel material properties, precisely and broadly tunable with chemical composition and nanoscale dimension. Despite substantial progress of nanoalloy synthesis, the randomized positional arrangement and dimensional/compositional inhomogeneity of nanoalloys remain significant technological challenges for advanced applications. Here we present a generalized route to synthesize single-crystalline intermetallic nanoalloy arrays with dimensional and compositional uniformity via self-assembly. Specific electrostatic association of multiple ionic metal complexes within self-assembled nanodomains of block copolymers generated patterned monodisperse bimetallic/trimetallic nanoalloy arrays consisting of various elements, including Au, Co, Fe, Pd, and Pt. The precise controllability of size, composition, and intermetallic crystalline structure of nanoalloys facilitated tailored synergistic properties, such as accelerated catalytic growth of vertical carbon nanotubes from Fe-Co nanoalloy arrays.

Electronic transfer as a route to increase the chemical stability in gold and silver core-shell nanoparticles

This review article presents the collected recent findings and advancements in understanding and manipulating the electronic properties of the Au/Ag NP system from the standpoint of controlling the characteristics of heterostructured core-shell NPs. The discovery of the electronic transfer effect through analysis of both Ag-Au and Au-Ag type NPs inspired the analysis of the resulting enhanced properties. First, the background on the synthesis and characterization of Ag, Au, Ag-Au, Au-Ag and Au-Ag-Au NPs, which will be used as a basis for studying the electronic transfer and stability properties is presented. Next, Mie Theory is used to inspect the optical properties of the Ag-Au NPs, revealing subtle structural characteristics in these probes, which has implications to the plasmonic properties. This is followed by the inspection of the electronic properties of the Au-Ag NPs primarily through XPS and XANES analysis, revealing the origins of the electronic transfer phenomenon. The unique electronic properties are then revealed to result in improved particle stability in terms of susceptibility to oxidation. Finally, an assessment of the resulting enhanced plasmonic sensing properties is discussed. The results are presented in terms of synthesis technique, material characterization, understanding of the electronic properties and manipulation of those properties to create Au-Ag NPs with enhanced resistance to oxidation and galvanic replacement.

Molecular plasmonics for biology and nanomedicine

The optical excitation of surface plasmons in metal nanoparticles leads to nanoscale spatial confinement of electromagnetic fields. The confined electromagnetic fields can generate intense, localized thermal energy and large near-field optical forces. The interaction between these effects and nearby molecules has led to the emerging field known as molecular plasmonics. Recent advances in molecular plasmonics have enabled novel optical materials and devices with applications in biology and nanomedicine. In this article, we categorize three main types of interactions between molecules and surface plasmons: optical, thermal and mechanical. Within the scope of each type of interaction, we will review applications of molecular plasmonics in biology and nanomedicine. We include a wide range of applications that involve sensing, spectral analysis, imaging, delivery, manipulation and heating of molecules, biomolecules or cells using plasmonic effects. We also briefly describe the physical principles of molecular plasmonics and progress in the nanofabrication, surface functionalization and bioconjugation of metal nanoparticles.

Engineering plasmonic gold nanostructures and metamaterials for biosensing and nanomedicine

The fields of biosensing and nanomedicine have recently witnessed an explosion of interest and progress in the design and study of plasmonic Au nanostructures (p-AuNSs) or metamaterials geared towards a broad range of biological and biomedical applications. Due to their tunable and versatile plasmonic properties, such artificially engineered p-AuNSs and materials have the potential to push biosensor sensitivity towards the single-molecule detection limit, enabling new bioimaging modalities and new analytical techniques and tools capable of single-molecule detection, analysis and manipulation, and to revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases, including cancers. This report summarizes and highlights recent major advances in the emerging field of bioapplication-oriented engineering of p-AuNSs and hybrids, focusing on design considerations and ways to carry them out. A brief overview of the optical properties of p-AuNSs is introduced, and then the importance of plasmonic engineering and future promising research directions and challenges in the field are discussed.

A plasmonic Fano switch

Plasmonic clusters can support Fano resonances, where the line shape characteristics are controlled by cluster geometry. Here we show that clusters with a hemicircular central disk surrounded by a circular ring of closely spaced, coupled nanodisks yield Fano-like and non-Fano-like spectra for orthogonal incident polarization orientations. When this structure is incorporated into an uniquely broadband, liquid crystal device geometry, the entire Fano resonance spectrum can be switched on and off in a voltage-dependent manner. A reversible transition between the Fano-like and non-Fano-like spectra is induced by relatively low (∼6 V) applied voltages, resulting in a complete on/off switching of the transparency window.

Plasmonic percolation: plasmon-manifested dielectric-to-metal transition

Percolation generally refers to the phenomenon of abrupt variations in electrical, magnetic, or optical properties caused by gradual volume fraction changes of one component across a threshold in bicomponent systems. Percolation behaviors have usually been observed in macroscopic systems, with most studies devoted to electrical percolation. We report on our observation of plasmonic percolation in Au nanorod core-Pd shell nanostructures. When the Pd volume fraction in the shell consisting of palladium and water approaches the plasmonic percolation threshold, ~70%, the plasmon of the nanostructure transits from red to blue shifts with respect to that of the unshelled Au nanorod. This plasmonic percolation behavior is also confirmed by the scattering measurements on the individual core-shell nanostructures. Quasistatic theory and numerical simulations show that the plasmonic percolation originates from a positive-to-negative transition in the real part of the dielectric function of the shell as the Pd volume fraction is increased. The observed plasmonic percolation is found to be independent of the metal type in the shell. Moreover, compared to the unshelled Au nanorods with similar plasmon wavelengths, the Au nanorod core-Pd shell nanostructures exhibit larger refractive index sensitivities, which is ascribed to the expulsion of the electric field intensity from the Au nanorod core by the adsorbed Pd nanoparticles.

Structural and thermal analysis of lipid vesicles encapsulating hydrophobic gold nanoparticles

The structure and stability of hybrid lipid vesicles containing bilayer-encapsulated hydrophobic nanoparticles is dependent upon lipid phase behavior. By embedding stearylamine-stabilized gold nanoparticles in dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine/dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol vesicles, we show that encapsulation at lipid to nanoparticle ratios from 10,000:1 to 5000:1 leads to bilayer thickening and hydrophobic mismatch, favoring nanoparticle inclusion in gel phase vesicles. High loadings lead to large increases in the gel to fluid melting temperature upon heating and significant hysteresis on cooling, which cannot be attributed solely to excess free ligand. This behavior is due to a cooperative effect of excess free SA ligand and nanoparticle embedment. Nanoparticle clustering was observed during lipid melting and could be reversed upon lipid freezing owing to lateral capillary forces within the bilayer. The impact of nanoparticle embedment on vesicle structure and properties at such low concentrations is reminiscent of hydrophobic proteins, suggesting that the underlying lipid biophysics between proteins and nanoparticle are similar and may provide a predictive design tool for therapeutic applications.

Magneto-optical properties of core-shell magneto-plasmonic Au-Co(x)Fe(3 - x)O4 nanowires

The magneto-optical properties of Au-Co(x)Fe(3 - x)O(4) core-shell nanowires embedded in porous alumina membranes are studied. The structures were obtained by depositing Co(x)Fe(3 - x)O(4) on the pore walls of alumina membranes by atomic layer deposition and filling the resulting nanotube with gold by electrodeposition. The effect of plasmon resonance excitation on the magneto-optical activity is clearly observed as a modification of the spectral line shape of the Kerr rotation signal.

Size-controlled synthesis of Au/Pd octopods with high refractive index sensitivity

Au/Pd octopods, nanostructures with eight branches and a primarily Au interior, have been synthesized as size-controlled samples through the manipulation of seed-mediated co-reduction. The position of their localized surface plasmon resonance can be controllably tuned throughout the visible and near-infrared regions, and this response is correlated with the structural features (branch length and tip width) of the octopods. These Au/Pd octopods were also found to be highly sensitive to changes in the local refractive index of the surrounding media and suitable substrates for surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy. These findings, coupled with their unique composition, highlight the multifunctional capabilities of the Au/Pd octopods and provide insight into the optical properties of architecturally controlled bimetallic nanostructures.

Multimode resonances in silver nanocuboids

A rich variety of dipolar and higher order plasmon resonances have been predicted for nanoscale cubes and parallopipeds of silver, in contrast to the simple dipolar modes found on silver nanospheres or nanorods. However, in general, these multimode resonances are not readily detected in experimental colloidal ensembles, due primarily to the usual variation of size and shape of the particles obscuring or blending the individual extinction peaks. Recently, methods have been found to prepare silver parallopipeds with unprecedented shape control by nucleating the silver onto a tightly controlled suspension of gold nanorods (Okuno, Y.; Nishioka, K.; Kiya, A.; Nakashima, N.; Ishibashi, A.; Niidome, Y. Uniform and Controllable Preparation of Au-Ag Core-Shell Nanorods Using Anisotropic Silver Shell Formation on Gold Nanorods. Nanoscale 2010, 2, 1489-1493). The optical extinction spectra of suspensions of such monodisperse particles are found to contain multiple extinction peaks, which we show here to be due to the multimode resonances predicted by theoretical studies. Control of the radius of the nanoparticle edges is found to be an effective way to turn some of these modes on or off. These nanoparticles provide a flexible platform for the excitation, manipulation, and exploration of higher order plasmon resonances.

Synthesis of Au@Ag core-shell nanocubes containing varying shaped cores and their localized surface plasmon resonances

We have synthesized Au@Ag core-shell nanocubes containing Au cores with varying shapes and sizes through modified seed-mediated methods. Bromide ions are found to be crucial in the epitaxial growth of Ag atoms onto Au cores and in the formation of the shell's cubic shape. The Au@Ag core-shell nanocubes exhibit very abundant and distinct localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) properties, which are core-shape and size-dependent. With the help of theoretical calculation, the physical origin and the resonance mode profile of each LSPR peak are identified and studied. The core-shell nanocrystals with varying shaped cores offer a new rich category for LSPR control through the plasmonic coupling effect between core and shell materials.

Three-dimensional self-assembling of gold nanorods with controlled macroscopic shape and local smectic B order

We describe a method of controlled evaporation on a textured substrate for self-assembling and shaping gold-nanorod-based materials. Tridimensional wall features are formed over areas as large as several square millimeters. Furthermore, analyses by small-angle X-ray scattering and scanning electron microscopy techniques demonstrate that colloids are locally ordered as a smectic B phase. Such crystallization is in fact possible because we could finely adjust the nanoparticle charge, knowledge that additionally enables tuning the lattice parameters. In the future, the type of ordered self-assemblies of gold nanorods we have prepared could be used for amplifying optical signals.

Enzymatic plasmonic engineering of Ag/Au bimetallic nanoshells and their use for sensitive optical glucose sensing

Enzyme works for plasmonic nanostructure: an interesting enzyme-responsive hybrid Ag/Au-GOx bimetallic nanoshell (NS) system is reported, in which control over the enzyme reaction of glucose oxidase (GOx) can automatically fine-tune the morphology (from complete NS to porous NS) and optical properties of the hybrid nanostructure. The phenomenon is further exploited as a new platform for sensitive optical glucose sensing.

Seed-mediated co-reduction: a versatile route to architecturally controlled bimetallic nanostructures

Gold-palladium octopods and new concave and shape-controlled alloy nanostructures are synthesized by seed-mediated co-reduction, wherein two metal precursors are reduced in the presence of seeds that serve as preferential sites for the growth of the larger nanostructures. Here, the first comprehensive study of this technique is presented in a model Au-Pd system and provides insight into the mechanism of formation for these architecturally distinct nanocrystals. A systematic evaluation of synthesis conditions decoupled the roles of (i) Au:Pd precursor ratio, (ii) reaction pH, and (iii) capping agent concentration in morphology development. These factors provide control of growth kinetics and ultimately the morphology and composition of the final nanostructures. Significantly, elucidating the overgrowth processes during seed-mediated co-reduction will lead to the synthesis of other architecturally controlled bimetallic nanocrystals.

Characterization of localized surface plasmon resonance transducers produced from Au(25) nanoparticle multilayers

This article reports the preparation of gold plasmonic transducers using a nanoparticle self-assembly/heating method and the characterization of the films using scattering-type scanning near-field optical microscopy (s-SNOM). Nanoparticle-polymer multilayer films were prepared by the layer-by-layer assembly on glass slides by alternating exposures to monodisperse Au(25) nanoparticles and ionic polymer linkers. Thermal evaporation of organic matters from the nanoparticle-polymer multilayer films at 600 °C allowed the nanoparticles to coalescence and form nanostructured films. Characterization of the nanostructured films generated from Au(25) nanoparticles using atomic force microscopy (AFM) showed that the films have rounded, small, island-like morphologies (d: 30-50 nm) with a pit in the center of many islands. However, further characterizations with s-SNOM revealed that the produced nanoislands contain a single gold cluster in a pit surrounded by donut-shaped dielectric species. Formation of such a structure is thought to be resulted from the embedding of gold clusters under the reorganized polysiloxane binder coatings and glass surfaces during heat treatment of the Au(25) nanoparticle multilayer films. The nanostructured films displayed strong surface plasmon resonance bands in UV-vis spectra with a peak absorbance occurring at ~545-550 nm. The optical sensing capability of the films was examined using D-glucose-functionalized gold island films with the interaction of Concanavalin A (ConA). The result showed that the adsorption of ConA on island films causes a large change in the LSPR band intensity.

Sub-nanometre sized metal clusters: from synthetic challenges to the unique property discoveries

Sub-nanometre sized metal clusters, with dimensions between metal atoms and nanoparticles, have attracted more and more attention due to their unique electronic structures and the subsequent unusual physical and chemical properties. However, the tiny size of the metal clusters brings the difficulty of their synthesis compared to the easier preparation of large nanoparticles. Up to now various synthetic techniques and routes have been successfully applied to the preparation of sub-nanometre clusters. Among the metals, gold clusters, especially the alkanethiolate monolayer protected clusters (MPCs), have been extensively investigated during the past decades. In recent years, silver and copper nanoclusters have also attracted enormous interest mainly due to their excellent photoluminescent properties. Meanwhile, more structural characteristics, particular optical, catalytic, electronic and magnetic properties and the related technical applications of the metal nanoclusters have been discovered in recent years. In this critical review, recent advances in sub-nanometre sized metal clusters (Au, Ag, Cu, etc.) including the synthetic techniques, structural characterizations, novel physical, chemical and optical properties and their potential applications are discussed in detail. We finally give a brief outlook on the future development of metal nanoclusters from the viewpoint of controlled synthesis and their potential applications.

Bimetallic nanoparticles: kinetic control matters

Morphologies à la carte: a kinetic control strategy has been utilized to fabricate bimetallic nanoparticles. Using cubic Pd nanocrystals as seeds and a syringe pump that enables precise control over precursor injection rate, it is possible to synthesize Pd-Ag bimetallic nanoparticles with tailored shapes and tunable localized surface plasmon resonances.

Solvent-adoptable polymer Ni/NiCo alloy nanochains: highly active and versatile catalysts for various organic reactions in both aqueous and nonaqueous media

The synthesis of solvent-adoptable monometallic Ni and NiCo alloy nanochains by a one-pot solution phase reduction method in the presence of poly(4-vinylphenol) (PVPh) is demonstrated. The elemental compositions of the as-prepared alloys are determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), which are matching well with the target compositions. The morphology analysis by TEM and FESEM confirms that the nanochains are made up of organized spherical monometallic Ni or bimetallic NiCo alloy nanoparticles (NPs). However, there is no nanochain formation when the alloy is prepared without the polymer PVPh. A possible mechanism for the formation of such NiCo alloy nanochains is discussed. The X-ray diffraction and selected area electron diffraction patterns reveal that the Ni/NiCo alloys are polycrystalline with fcc structure. The obtained Ni or NiCo alloy nanostructures are ferromagnetic with very high coercivity. The polymer Ni/NiCo alloy nanochains are dispersible in both water and organic media that makes them versatile enough to use as catalysts in the reactions carried out in both types of media. The catalytic activities of these Ni/NiCo alloy nanochains are extremely high in the borohydride reduction of p-nitrophenol in water. In organic solvents, these nanochains can act as efficient catalysts, under ligand-free condition, for the C-S cross-coupling reactions of various aryl iodides and aryl thiols for obtaining the corresponding cross-coupled products in good to excellent yield up to 96%. The NiCo nanochain also successfully catalyzes the C-O cross-coupling reaction in organic medium. A possible mechanism for NiCo alloy nanochain-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction is proposed.