Halloysite clay nanotubes for controlled release of protective agents

Biomimetic cell-mediated three-dimensional assembly of halloysite nanotubes

Biomimetic architectural assembly of clay nanotube shells on yeast cells was demonstrated producing viable artificial hybrid inorganic-cellular structures (armoured cells). These modified cells were preserved for one generation resulting in the intact second generation of cells with delayed germination.

Influence of embedded nanocontainers on the efficiency of active anticorrosive coatings for aluminum alloys part II: influence of nanocontainer position

The present work contributes to the coating design of active anticorrosive coatings for the aluminum alloy, AA2024-T3. Part II is a continuation of Part I: Influence of Nanocontainer Concentration and describes further surprising aspects of the design of nanocontainer based active anticorrosive coatings, which influence their performance. The studied coating system consists of a passive sol-gel (SiO(x)/ZrO(x)) matrix and inhibitor (2-mercaptobenzothiazole) loaded mesoporous silica nanocontainers (MBT@NCs), which are dispersed only in half of the coating volume. Varying position and concentration of MBT@NCs the synergetic effect of inhibitor amount and path length on the metal surface were analyzed, considering the balance between optimum barrier properties, active protection and adhesion. The impact of MBT@NC position on passive and active corrosion resistance was investigated by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and scanning vibrating electrode technique. Increasing the distance between MBT@NCs and metal surface led to better barrier properties but worse active corrosion inhibition. These findings improve the understanding of the factors influencing the overall performance of active anticorrosive coatings and enable the development of a coating system with optimum anticorrosion efficiency.

Potent antibacterial activity of a novel silver nanoparticle-halloysite nanotube nanocomposite powder

Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs), natural nanotube, have been developed as a support for loading of antibacterial agents. Firstly, HNTs were modified by silane coupling agent (KH-792). And then, modified HNTs were immersed in silver nitrate solution and a complex reaction between the two amino groups of KH-792 and silver ions formed, leading to large clusters on the surface of HNTs. Finally, these silver containing clusters were converted into silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) with about 5nm diameter by reduction process. A new antibacterial agent, Ag NPs/HNTs, was characterized by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning transmission electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray analysis (STEM-EDX). The antibacterial test indicated that Ag NPs/HNTs showed good antibacterial performance against Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli) and Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus).

Organosilane functionalization of halloysite nanotubes for enhanced loading and controlled release

The surfaces of naturally occurring halloysite nanotubes were functionalized with γ-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES), which was found to have a substantial effect on the loading and subsequent release of a model dye molecule. APTES was mostly anchored at the internal lumen surface of halloysite through covalent grafting, forming a functionalized surface covered by aminopropyl groups. The dye loading of the functionalized halloysite was 32% greater than that of the unmodified sample, and the release from the functionalized halloysite was dramatically prolonged as compared to that from the unmodified one. Dye release was prolonged at low pH and the release at pH 3.5 was approximately three times slower than that at pH 10.0. These results demonstrate that organosilane functionalization makes pH an external trigger for controlling the loading of guest on halloysite and the subsequent controlled release.

Enlargement of halloysite clay nanotube lumen by selective etching of aluminum oxide

Halloysite clay tubes have 50 nm diameter and chemically different inner and outer walls (inner surface of aluminum oxide and outer surface of silica). Due to this different chemistry, the selective etching of alumina from inside the tube was realized, while preserving their external diameter (lumen diameter changed from 15 to 25 nm). This increases 2-3 times the tube lumen capacity for loading and further sustained release of active chemical agents such as metals, corrosion inhibitors, and drugs. In particular, halloysite loading efficiency for the benzotriazole increased 4 times by selective etching of 60% alumina within the tubes' lumens. Specific surface area of the tubes increased over 6 times, from 40 to 250 m(2)/g, upon acid treatment.

Halloysite clay nanotubes for resveratrol delivery to cancer cells

Halloysite is natural aluminosilicate clay with hollow tubular structure which allows loading with low soluble drugs using their saturated solutions in organic solvents. Resveratrol, a polyphenol known for having antioxidant and antineoplastic properties, is loaded inside these clay nanotubes lumens. Release time of 48 h is demonstrated. Spectroscopic and ζ-potential measurements are used to study the drug loading/release and for monitoring the nanotube layer-by-layer (LbL) coating with polyelectrolytes for further release control. Resveratrol-loaded clay nanotubes are added to breast cell cultures for toxicity tests. Halloysite functionalization with LbL polyelectrolyte multilayers remarkably decrease nanotube self-toxicity. MTT measurements performed with a neoplastic cell lines model system (MCF-7) as function of the resveratrol-loaded nanotubes concentration and incubation time indicate that drug-loaded halloysite strongly increase of cytotoxicity leading to cell apoptosis.

Influence of embedded nanocontainers on the efficiency of active anticorrosive coatings for aluminum alloys part I: influence of nanocontainer concentration

This work presents an effective anticorrosive coating for the industrially important aluminum alloy, AA2024-T3. The protective coating was designed by dispersing mesoporous silica nanocontainers, loaded with the nontoxic corrosion inhibitor, 2-mercaptobenzothiazole, in a hybrid sol-gel (SiOx/ZrOx) layer. The concentration of the embedded nanocontainers was varied (0.04-1.7 wt %) to ascertain the optimum conditions for anticorrosion performance. Attaining high efficiency was found to be a compromise between delivering sufficient corrosion inhibitor and preserving the coating barrier properties. The impact of nanocontainer concentration on the thickness and adhesion of freshly cured coatings was also investigated. The barrier properties of the intact coatings were assessed by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The active corrosion inhibition was evaluated during a simulated corrosion process by the scanning vibrating electrode technique. This study has led to a better understanding of the factors influencing the anticorrosion performance and properties of active anticorrosive coatings with embedded nanocontainers.

Polymer nanocomposites: structure, interaction, and functionality

This feature article discusses the main factors determining the properties of polymer nanocomposites with special attention paid to structure and interactions. Usually more complicated structure develops in nanocomposites than in traditional particulate filled polymers, and that is especially valid for composites prepared from plate-like nanofillers. Besides the usually assumed exfoliated/intercalated morphology, i.e. individual platelets and tactoids, such nanocomposites often contain large particles, and a network structure developing at large extent of exfoliation. Aggregation and orientation are the most important structural phenomena in nanotube or nanofiber reinforced composites, and ag-gregation is a major problem also in composites prepared with spherical particles. The surface characteristics of nanofillers and interactions are rarely determined or known; the related problems are discussed in the paper in detail. The surface of these reinforcements is modified practically always. The goal of the modification is to improve dispersion and/or adhesion in nanotube and spherical particle reinforced composites, and to help exfoliation in nanocomposites containing platelets. However, modification decreases surface energy often leading to decreased interaction with the matrix. Very limited information exists about interphase formation and the properties of the interphase in nanocomposites, although they must influence properties considerably. The properties of nanocomposites are usually far from the expectations, the main reason being insufficient homogeneity, undefined structure and improper adhesion. In spite of considerable difficulties nanocomposites have great potentials especially in functional applications. Several nanocomposite products are already used in industrial practice demonstrated by a few examples in the article.

Traversing Material Scales: Macroscale LBL-Assembled Nanocomposites with Microscale Inverted Colloidal Crystal Architecture

The introduction of three-dimensional (3D) architecture to functional materials allows for the addition of unique characteristics such as special deformation patterns, negative Poison's ratio, negative thermal expansion, controlled biological interactions, and mass transport properties. It also aids in bridging the dimensional gap between layer-by-layer (LBL) assembled nanocomposites and macroscale applications while retaining the advantages of their nanoscale organization. Fabrication of 3D microscale features by traditional techniques are often restricted to a limited variety of materials and do not include hybrid organic-inorganic nanocomposites. This work describes a new method to synthesize macroscale materials with hierarchically controlled architecture by using LBL deposition in the voids of hexagonally packed arrays of uniform microspheres and can be potentially extended to a large variety of materials. Establishing systematic techniques to produce materials with hierarchical architecture involving nano-, micro-, and potentially millimeter scale features with fairly independent control at all levels, allows for the investigation of structural influences on material properties and for the development of new practical applications due to the unusual combinations of properties that can be achieved.

Functionalized halloysite nanotube-based carrier for intracellular delivery of antisense oligonucleotides

Halloysites are cheap, abundantly available, and natural with high mechanical strength and biocompatibility. In this paper, a novel halloysite nanotube [HNT]-based gene delivery system was explored for loading and intracellular delivery of antisense oligodeoxynucleotides [ASODNs], in which functionalized HNTs [f-HNTs] were used as carriers and ASODNs as a therapeutic gene for targeting survivin. HNTs were firstly surface-modified with γ-aminopropyltriethoxysilane in order to facilitate further biofunctionalization. The f-HNTs and the assembled f-HNT-ASODN complexes were characterized by transmission electron microscopy [TEM], dynamic light scattering, UV-visible spectroscopy, and fluorescence spectrophotometry. The intracellular uptake and delivery efficiency of the complexes were effectively investigated by TEM, confocal microscopy, and flow cytometry. In vitro cytotoxicity studies of the complexes using MTT assay exhibited a significant enhancement in the cytotoxic capability. The results exhibited that f-HNT complexes could efficiently improve intracellular delivery and enhance antitumor activity of ASODNs by the nanotube carrier and could be used as novel promising vectors for gene therapy applications, which is attributed to their advantages over structures and features including a unique tubular structure, large aspect ratio, natural availability, rich functionality, good biocompatibility, and high mechanical strength.

Natural tubule clay template synthesis of silver nanorods for antibacterial composite coating

Halloysite is naturally available clay mineral with hollow cylindrical geometry and it is available in thousands of tons. Silver nanorods were synthesized inside the lumen of the halloysite by thermal decomposition of the silver acetate, which was loaded into halloysite from an aqueous solution by vacuum cycling. Images of individual ca. 15 nm diameter silver nanorods and nanoparticles were observed with TEM. The presence of silver inside the tubes was also verified with STEM-EDX elemental mapping. Nanorods had crystalline nature with [111] axis oriented ~68° from the halloysite tubule main axis. The composite of silver nanorods encased in clay tubes with the polymer paint was prepared, and the coating antimicrobial activity combined with tensile strength increase was demonstrated. Coating containing up 5% silver loaded halloysite did not change color after light exposure contrary to the sample prepared with loading with unshelled silver nanoparticles. Halloysite tube templates have a potential for scalable manufacturing of ceramic encapsulated metal nanorods for composite materials.

Layer-by-layer self-assembled shells for drug delivery

There are several requirements for the safe and effective delivery of therapeutic agents for human use. Direct injection of drugs may cause side effects due to their permeation to other, undiseased regions of the body so that concealment and targeting with appropriate materials is a critical consideration in the design of practical drug delivery systems. In particular, carriers with structures which can be flexibly controlled are more useful since functional structure units can be assembled in component-by-component and/or layer-by-layer fashion. In this review, we focus on preparation of layer-by-layer shells directed at drug delivery applications. After a description of the fundamentals of layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly, recent progress in the field of self-assembled microshells and nanoshells for drug delivery applications are summarized. In addition, concepts developed to solve current difficulties are also described. Encapsulation of insoluble drugs in nanoshells and their delivery can satisfy some of the demands of practical medical use. Thus, aqueous suspensions of insoluble drugs have been subjected to powerful ultrasonic treatment followed by sequential addition of polycations and polyanions to the particle solution leading to assembly of ultra-thin polyelectrolyte shells on the nano-sized drug particles. In another innovative example, stepwise release of drugs from LbL films of mesoporous capsules to the exterior in the absence of external stimuli was demonstrated. It can be regarded as stimuli-free auto-modulated material release.

Smart nanocontainers as depot media for feedback active coatings

Among the grand challenges at present are ways to develop systems with low consumption of raw materials and with little load on the environment. In view of this it is of utmost importance to avoid or to delay processes causing material destruction. This is especially urgent, since many protective substances have associated health hazards, and new routes to improve the situation are a main concern of this contribution. Nanocapsules (nanocontainers) with controlled release properties of the shell can be used to fabricate a new family of active coatings, with quick response to changes of the coating environment or coating integrity. The release of active materials encapsulated into nanocapsules is triggered by various external and internal factors, thus preventing spontaneous leakage of the active component. The coating can have several active functionalities when several types of nanocapsules loaded with corresponding active agent are incorporated simultaneously into a coating matrix. We highlight recent achievements in development and application of filled responsive containers in biomedical and self-healing protective coatings.

One-step exfoliation of kaolinites and their transformation into nanoscrolls

Kaolinite nanoscrolls, rolled kaolinite sheets with a tubular form, were prepared by a one-step route in which intercalation of guest species and swelling with solvent proceed at the same time. A methoxy-modified kaolinite was exfoliated by the intercalation of hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride. The formation of nanoscrolls by the one-step route proceeded only by several alkyltrimethylammonium salts and 1-hexadecyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride. Intercalation of primary amines caused the formation of nanoscrolls by a two-step route in which the intercalation and swelling proceed separately. The successful one-step route is ascribed to the relatively weak interactions between the head groups of guest species and the interlayer surface of methoxy-modified kaolinite, and the interaction is thought to allow the formation of a flexible array of interlayer guest species for swelling. The tubular structure was mostly retained after the heat treatment at 600 °C to form hierarchically porous aluminosilicates with amorphous frameworks. The nanoscrolls intercalated organic guests species, which are not directly intercalated into methoxy-modified kaolinite, between the scrolled layers. The formation route to nanoscrolls is quite dependent not only on the surface modification of kaolinite but also on the structure of guest species.

Dispersions of nanoclays of different shapes into aqueous and solid biopolymeric matrices. Extended physicochemical study

Dispersions of nanofillers into aqueous and solid biopolymeric matrices were studied from the physicochemical viewpoint. This work was carried out based on the idea that the combination of biopolymers, derived from renewable resources, and nanofiller, environmentally friendly, may form a new generation of nanomaterials with excellent and unique properties at low cost. To this purpose, two pectins with different degrees of methyl esterification and nanoclays like halloysite and laponite RD were selected. The thermodynamic and structural studies on the aqueous mixtures of pectin and nanoclay were able to discriminate the interactions, which control the adsorption of pectin onto the filler and the aggregation of both pectin and clay particles. The gained insights were useful to interpret the mesoscopic structure of the nanocomposites (prepared from the aqueous mixtures by means of the casting method) evidenced by SEM, thermal stability, tensile properties, and transparency investigations. The attained knowledge represents a basic point for designing new hybrid nanostructures in both the aqueous and the solid phase for specific purposes.

Constructing carbon-coated Fe₃O₄ microspheres as antiacid and magnetic support for palladium nanoparticles for catalytic applications

Fe₃O₄ microsphere is a good candidate as support for catalyst because of its unique magnetic property and large surface area. Coating Fe₃O₄ microspheres with other materials can protect them from being dissolved in acid solution or add functional groups on their surface to adsorb catalyst. In this paper, a carbon layer was coated onto Fe₃O₄ microspheres by hydrothermal treatment using polyethylene glycol as the connecting agents between glucose and Fe₃O₄ spheres. Through tuning the added amounts of reactants, the thickness of the carbon layer could be well-controlled. Because of the abundant reductive groups on the surface of carbon layer, noble metal ions could be easily adsorbed and in situ reduced to nanoparticles (6-12 nm). The prepared catalyst not only had unique antiacid and magnetic properties, but also exhibited a higher catalytic activity toward the reduction of methyl orange than commercially used Pd/C catalyst.

Co-cross-linking silk matrices with silica nanostructures for robust ultrathin nanocomposites

We report on a novel assembly approach to fabricate ultrathin robust freely standing nanocomposite membranes. The materials are composed of a pre-cross-linked silk fibroin matrix with incorporated silica nanoparticles with silsesquioxane cores (POSS) or clay nanoplatelets. These reinforced silk membranes have enhanced mechanical properties as compared to traditional silk-based nanocomposites reported previously. Up to 6-fold and 8-fold increase in elastic modulus and toughness, respectively, were found for these nanocomposites. In contrast, traditional LbL-assembled nanocomposites showed only a 3-fold increase in mechanical strength. The silk nanocomposites obtained also revealed excellent optical transparency in the visible region especially if reinforced with POSS nanoparticles, which suggests their utility as low cost, nontoxic, and easily scalable reinforced biomaterials for mechanically demanding applications.

Cytocompatibility and uptake of halloysite clay nanotubes

Halloysite is aluminosilicate clay with hollow tubular structure of 50 nm external diameter and 15 nm diameter lumen. Halloysite biocompatibility study is important for its potential applications in polymer composites, bone implants, controlled drug delivery, and for protective coating (e.g., anticorrosion or antimolding). Halloysite nanotubes were added to different cell cultures for toxicity tests. Its fluorescence functionalization by aminopropyltriethosilane (APTES) and with fluorescently labeled polyelectrolyte layers allowed following halloysite uptake by the cells with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Quantitative Trypan blue and MTT measurements performed with two neoplastic cell lines model systems as a function of the nanotubes concentration and incubation time indicate that halloysite exhibits a high level of biocompatibility and very low cytotoxicity, rendering it a good candidate for household materials and medicine. A combination of transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and scanning force microscopy (SFM) imaging techniques have been employed to elucidate the structure of halloysite nanotubes.

Preparation of highly ordered cubic NaA zeolite from halloysite mineral for adsorption of ammonium ions

Well-ordered cubic NaA zeolite was first synthesized using natural halloysite mineral with nanotubular structure as source material by hydro-thermal method. SEM and HRTEM images indicate that the synthesized NaA zeolite is cubic-shaped crystal with planar surface, well-defined edges and symmetrical and uniform pore channels. The adsorption behavior of ammonium ions (NH(4)(+)) from aqueous solution onto NaA zeolite was investigated as a function of parameters such as equilibrium time, pH, initial NH(4)(+) concentration, temperature and competitive cations. The Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption models were applied to describe the equilibrium isotherms. A maximum adsorption capacity of 44.3 mg g(-1) of NH(4)(+) was achieved. The regeneration and reusable ability of this adsorbent was evaluated, and the results indicated that the recovered adsorbent could be used again for NH(4)(+) removal with nearly constant adsorption capacity. Thermodynamic parameters such as change in free energy (DeltaG(0)), enthalpy (DeltaH(0)) and entropy (DeltaS(0)) were also determined, which indicated that the adsorption was a spontaneous and exothermic process at ambient conditions. Compared with other adsorbents, the as-synthesized NaA zeolite displays a faster adsorption rate and higher adsorption capacity, which implies potential application for removing NH(4)(+) pollutants from wastewaters.

Imogolite Reinforced Nanocomposites: Multifaceted Green Materials

This paper presents an overview on recent developments of imogolite reinforced nanocomposites, including fundamental structure, synthesis/purification of imogolite, physicochemical properties of nanocomposites and potential applications in industry. The naturally derived nanotubular material of imogolite represents a distinctive class of nanofiller for industrially significant polymer. The incompatibility between the surface properties of inorganic nanofiller and organic matrix has prompted the need to surface modify the imogolite. Early problems in increasing the binding properties of surface modifier to imogolite have been overcome by using a phosphonic acid group. Different approaches have been used to gain better control over the dispersal of nanofiller and to further improve the physicochemical properties of nanocomposites. Among these, polymer grafting, in situ synthesis of imogolite in polymer matrix, and spin-assembly are some of the promising methods that will be described herein. This imogolite reinforced nanocomposite of enhanced optical and mechanical properties, and with unique biological and electronic properties, is expected to become an important category of hybrid material that shows potential for industrial applications.