Practice Guidelines for Preoperative Fasting and the Use of Pharmacologic Agents to Reduce the Risk of Pulmonary Aspiration: Application to Healthy Patients Undergoing Elective Procedures

Point-of-Care Ultrasound to Assess Gastric Content

Gastric ultrasound (US) is a growing modality within the point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) field. It provides the ability to directly measure an individual patient's gastric content and has potential use as both a clinical and a research tool. Here, we review the historical development of current gastric US models and their clinical application within the field of general anesthesia, describe the US findings and technique for using POCUS to assess gastric content, and discuss the current and potential applications of gastric POCUS within the emergency department.

Quality improvement assessment of a bianchi-technique pediatric orchiopexy perioperative pain management pathway

BACKGROUND

Surgical correction of undescended testes is a common surgical procedure which can be performed via a two-incision technique or a single high scrotal incision (Bianchi technique). The Bianchi technique requires less surgical time and may be associated with less pain in the initial postoperative period, however it has been adopted slowly due to a lack of familiarity and perceived technical challenges of the technique. Traditionally postoperative orchiopexy pain is managed with a caudal or ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve block. As urologists at our site adopted the Bianchi technique, the anesthesiologists stopped performing caudals or ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve blocks as local infiltration appeared sufficient. Therefore, this quality improvement (QI) project endeavoured to assess Alberta Children's Hospital's care pathway in its effectiveness to control pain in the first 24 h following pediatric orchiopexy using the Bianchi technique.

METHODS

We completed a prospective QI project examining a care pathway for patients undergoing orchiopexy using the Bianchi technique. Eligible patients were healthy and aged 6 months to 12 years. A multimodal analgesic approach including local anesthetic surgical infiltration was used. Pain scores (FLACC) were recorded for up to 2 h postoperatively and a PPPM was completed at 24 h postoperatively.

RESULTS

Sixty-four patients were included in the final analysis. The median discharge FLACC score was 0 (range 0-2) (Table 2). Median intraoperative morphine administered was 0.09 mg/kg with no significant correlations between the amount of morphine administered and postoperative pain measures. Median PPPM scores were 4 and 3.5 for unilateral and bilateral procedures, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

We have demonstrated that orchiopexies repaired using the Bianchi technique following the care pathway established at Alberta Children's Hospital are associated with minimal pain scores. Our QI project suggests that combining a Bianchi technique with a simple multimodal analgesic approach including local infiltration, negates the need for regional anesthesia techniques, yet still provides adequate analgesia.

Comparison of fasting gastric volume using ultrasound in diabetic and non-diabetic patients in elective surgery: An observational study

Background and Aims:

Gastroparesis despite standard fasting in diabetic patients may increase the aspiration risk. This study aimed to compare fasting gastric volume (GV) of diabetic with non-diabetic patients scheduled for elective surgery using USG.

Methods:

This prospective observational study included 53 diabetic and 50 non-diabetic patients aged >18 years, American Society of Anesthesiologists' physical status I-III having similar fasting intervals. Before induction, using standard gastric scanning protocol, qualitative and quantitative assessments of gastric antrum in supine and right lateral decubitus (RLD) positions were performed with a curved array probe. USG grade, cross-sectional area (CSA) of the antrum and GV were calculated. The gastric antrum was classified as Grade 0, 1 or 2, signifying empty antrum, fluid in RLD position only and antral fluid in both supine and RLD positions, respectively.

Results:

In supine position, CC and AP diameters were 1.96 ± 0.41 cm and 0.9 ± 0.57 cm in control group and 2.28 ± 0.50 cm and 1.39 ± 0.44 cm in diabetic group, respectively. In RLD, CC was 2.28 ± 0.57 cm and AP was 1.24 ± 0.42 cm in control group as compared to CC 2.54 ± 0.56 cm and AP 1.82 ± 0.56 cm in diabetic group. The CSA of 2.57 ± 1.19 cm² and 3.73 ± 1.61 cm² in diabetic were significantly higher (P = 0.001) than 1.41 ± 0.55 cm² and 2.30 ± 1.18 cm² of control, in supine and RLD positions, respectively. GV was 4.20 ± 22.26 ml in control group and 9.15 ± 25.70 ml in diabetic group.

Conclusion:

Diabetic patients have higher gastric antral cross-sectional area and gastric volumes as observed by gastric ultrasound than the non-diabetic patients.

The Effects of Fasting Status on the Relative Risk of Pulmonary Aspiration in Acute Care Surgery Patients

BACKGROUND

Acute care surgery patients are often unfasted at the time of surgery, presenting a unique opportunity to study the effects of fasting on the risk of pulmonary aspiration. We aimed to determine the relative risk of aspiration in patients who were fasted at the time of surgery according to guidelines versus those in an unfasted state.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review of 100 patients who underwent appendectomy (n = 76) or exploratory laparotomy (n = 24) was conducted at a single institution in 2016-2017. Using the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) Practice Guidelines for Preoperative Fasting, patients were stratified into study and control groups according to whether they were unfasted (nothing by mouth for <8 hours prior to surgery) or fasted (nothing by mouth for >8 hours prior to surgery). Data controlled for patients' age, sex, body mass index (BMI), most recent hemoglobin A1c, presence of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and presence of hiatal hernia.

RESULTS

Of the 76 patients who underwent appendectomy, 15% were unfasted with a total of 0 aspiration events (P < .001). Of the 24 patients who underwent exploratory laparotomy, 42% were unfasted with a total of 0 aspiration events (P < .001). This yields a relative risk of pulmonary aspiration of 1.0 (absolute risk of 0) in both the study and control groups.

DISCUSSION

In an acute care surgery population including patients who were not fasted according to guidelines, there was no increase in the risk of pulmonary aspiration.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Epidemiological study; Level III.

Standard procedures in nonoperating room anesthesia

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This article provides an overview of standard procedures currently performed in nonoperating room anesthesia (NORA) and highlights anesthetic implications.

RECENT FINDINGS

Novel noninvasive interventional procedures remain on the rise, accelerating demand for anesthesia support outside the conventional operating room. The field of interventional oncology has introduced a variety of effective minimally invasive therapies making interventional radiology gain a major role in the management of cancer. Technical innovation brings newer ablative and embolotherapy techniques into practice. Flexible bronchoscopy has replaced rigid bronchoscopy for many diagnostic and therapeutic indications. Endobronchial ultrasonography now allows sampling of mediastinal, paratracheal, or subcarinal lymph nodes rendering more invasive procedures such as mediastinoscopy unnecessary. Similarly, endoscopic ultrasonosgraphy currently plays a central position in the management of gastrointestinal disease. Sophisticated catheter techniques for ablating cardiac arrhythmias have become state of the art; Watchman procedure gaining position in the prevention of stroke resulting from atrial fibrillation.

SUMMARY

NORA is a rapidly evolving field in anesthesia. Employing new technology to treat a wide variety of diseases brings new challenges to the anesthesiologist. Better understanding of emerging interventional techniques is key to safe practice and allows the anesthesia expert to be at the forefront of this swiftly expanding multidisciplinary arena.

Global Anesthesia in Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery

Anesthesia for oral and maxillofacial procedures during volunteer surgical missions requires careful planning of personnel, equipment, supplies, and coordination with the host medical institution. Cleft lip and palate repair are the most common oral and maxillofacial surgeries performed, and can be performed safely in low-resource environments when proper care and planning is taken.

Early complications in flexible bronchoscopy at a university hospital

Objective:

To analyze the complications related to flexible bronchoscopy (FB) and its collection procedures in outpatients and inpatients with various lung and airway diseases treated at a university hospital.

Methods:

This was a retrospective analysis of complications occurring during or within 2 h after FB performed between January of 2012 and December of 2013, as recorded in the database of the respiratory endoscopy department of a hospital complex in the city of São Paulo, Brazil.

Results:

We analyzed 3,473 FBs. Complications occurred in 185 procedures (5.3%): moderate to severe bleeding, in 2.2%; pneumothorax, in 0.7%; severe bronchospasm, in 0.8%; general complications (hypoxemia, psychomotor agitation, arrhythmias, vomiting, or hypotension), in 1.6%; and cardiopulmonary arrest, in 0.03%. There were no deaths related to the procedures. Specifically, among the 1,728 patients undergoing biopsy, bronchial brushing, or fine-needle aspiration biopsy, bleeding occurred in 75 (4.3%). Among the 1,191 patients undergoing transbronchial biopsy, severe pneumothorax (requiring chest tube drainage) occurred in 24 (2.0%).

Conclusions:

In our patient sample, FB proved to be a safe method with a low rate of complications. Appropriate continuing training of specialist doctors and nursing staff, as well as the development of standardized care protocols, are important for maintaining those standards.

Metabolic and Inflammatory Benefits of Reducing Preoperative Fasting Time in Pediatric Surgery

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the metabolic/inflammatory impact of reducing the preoperative fasting time in preschool children.

METHODS

Forty children were randomly assigned to a fasting group (absolute fasting after 00:00) and a carbohydrate (CHO) group (allowed to ingest, two hours before surgery, a carbohydrate-rich beverage). Blood samples were collected right before and after surgery to quantify the levels of albumin, interleukin-6, glucose, insulin, C-reactive protein and to calculate insulin resistance by the HOMA-IR index.

RESULTS

Preoperative fasting time in the CHO group were shorter than in the fasting group (2.49h vs. 11.24h, p <0.001). Pre- and post-surgical CRP levels were significantly lower in the CHO group (p = 0.05 and p = 0.02, respectively). The preoperative CRP/albumin ratios in the CHO group were lower than in the fasting group (p = 0.03). Four patients (21%) in the fasting group but none in the CHO group were hyperglycemic before surgery (p = 0.04). The two groups had similar levels of albumin, interleukin-6, insulin and HOMA index. There were no adverse events.

CONCLUSION

Reducing the preoperative fasting time with carbohydrate-rich beverages improves the perioperative metabolic and inflammatory responses of preschool children undergoing inguinal hernia surgery.

Comparison of Intranasal Dexmedetomidine Versus Intranasal Ketamine as Premedication for Level of Sedation in Children Undergoing Radiation Therapy: A Prospective, Randomised, Double-Blind Study

OBJECTIVE

Radiation therapy is indicated in many solid tumours in children. Absolute immobility is required to precisely position children for optimal delivery of radiation energy to the target tissues, improve success rate and reduce the damage to nearby normal tissues. Intranasal (IN) administration of drugs is well tolerated, effective and fast acting. The primary aim of the present study was to evaluate the effectiveness of IN ketamine and dexmedetomidine for providing sedation in children before shifting to the radiotherapy suite. The secondary objective was to assess the requirement of propofol dosage in these patients.

METHODS

A total of 243 children aged between 1 and 5 years scheduled to undergo external beam radiotherapy were randomised to receive 5 mg kg^-1 ketamine (group K, n=80), 2.5 μg kg^-1 dexmedetomidine (group D, n=85) or 0.5 ml of saline (group S, n=78) in each nostril. After 45 min, sedation score was measured according to the modified Ramsay score (MRS) at the time of shifting for radiation. Time to awakening and time to discharge after the procedure were also noted.

RESULTS

A significantly higher proportion of children in group D (84.7%) achieved an MRS score ≥3 as compared to group K (36.2%) and group S (3.84%). The total propofol dose (mg kg^-1) required was significantly less in group D (p<0.01). The patients in group D required more time to awakening, but this difference was not clinically significant.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrated that IN dexmedetomidine is superior to IN ketamine to provide procedural sedation for radiotherapy in children.

Perioperative aspiration events in children: A report from the Wake Up Safe Collaborative

BACKGROUND

Perioperative aspiration, while rare, is a serious complication of anesthetic care. Consequences of aspiration may include physical obstruction, wheezing, and pneumonia, resulting in mild to severe hypoxemia and even death.

AIM

We used a multi-institutional registry of pediatric patients to identify factors that influence the rate and resulting harm of perioperative pulmonary aspiration.

METHODS

The Wake Up Safe registry was queried for all severe adverse events reported from 29 institutions from 2010 to 2017. Aspiration events were identified through the "respiratory adverse event" data entry form or through free text search. Multivariable regression was used to predict aspiration events, and contributory factors were identified by reviewing free text case comments.

RESULTS

Analysis included 2 440 810 anesthetics administered involving patients ≤18 years of age. There were 135 pulmonary aspiration events, for an incidence of 0.006%. Within these 135 cases, 110 cases (82%) resulted in escalation of care and 51 (38%) resulted in patient harm, including 2 deaths (1.5%). In multivariable analysis, patients undergoing emergency surgery (OR 2.0 [1.2-3.5]) or with higher ASA status were more likely to experience aspiration (ASA 3 (OR 5.0 [2.6-9.1]); ASA ≥ 4 (OR 5.5 [3.8-16.8])). Noted causes of aspiration included gastrointestinal comorbid conditions (19%), postcoughing event or laryngospasm (14%), nil per os (NPO) violation (11%), blood or secretions in the airway following or during the procedure (6%), and oral premedication reaction (3%).

CONCLUSION

Although infrequent, death was reported as a consequence of perioperative aspiration in two patients. The frequency with which NPO violations were identified as a potential cause of aspiration highlights the struggles institutions face with adherence to NPO regulations, as these cases may be preventable. Furthermore, preventive measures may be needed to address other common causes of aspiration, such as gastrointestinal comorbid conditions.

Preoperative Evaluation for Thoracic Surgery

Preoperative evaluation before thoracic surgery aims to separate those patients who will tolerate surgery and those who are not surgical candidates. Predicted postoperative pulmonary function testing helps make this distinction. The preoperative period represents a time for patient engagement and physical optimization to improve postoperative outcomes.

Interventional Management of Head and Neck Tumors

Advancements in medical imaging and device technology allow minimal invasive procedures for the diagnosis and treatment of various disorders. For the management of tumors in head and neck region, these image-guided interventions play essential role in the often used multidisciplinary approach. Tissue sampling under ultrasound or computed tomography guidance is generally the first step to reach a pathological diagnosis. For head and neck tumors with high vascularity, embolization using particulate matter, liquid embolic agents, or coils is used to achieve successful tumor resection with minimal blood loss. Hemorrhage related to head and neck tumors can be evaluated and managed with endovascular techniques with minimal morbidity and mortality. Intra-arterial chemotherapy, radiofrequency ablation, and cryotherapy are new techniques for the management of advanced head and neck cancer which may serve as an alternative to achieve locoregional control and survival when curative resection may not be feasible.

Effects of prone positioning with neck extension on intracranial pressure according to optic nerve sheath diameter measured using ultrasound in children

PURPOSE

Optic nerve sheath diameter has been used for measure of intracranial pressure. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of prone positioning with neck extension on intracranial pressure in infants undergoing craniosynostosis surgery and to determine precautions using optic nerve sheath diameter measurement.

METHODS

We enrolled 30 infants who were scheduled for correction of craniosynostosis in which planning included the prone position with neck extension. Optic nerve sheath diameter (anterior/lateral transbulbar approach) was measured 5 times in each eyeball at the following time points: 15 min after intubation in supine position as the baseline value (supine 1); 10 min after final surgical position before skin incision (prone); and 10 min after returning to supine position at the conclusion of surgery (supine 2). Hemodynamic parameters, airway peak pressure, oxygen saturation, and E_TCO₂ were monitored. Data were analyzed using repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance to evaluate the effect of different positions under anesthesia on changes in using optic nerve sheath diameter and P < 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.

RESULTS

There was no difference in optic nerve sheath diameter after prone position with neck extension in all the measure. After surgery, optic nerve sheath diameter was decreased compared with the preoperative baseline values (Rt anterior/lateral 5.6/5.5: 5.4/5.2; Lt anterior/lateral 5.6/5.5: 5.4/5.3, P < 0.05, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, prone positioning with head extension did not further increase intracranial pressure, although the surgical procedure could reduce intracranial pressure in the immediate postoperative period in infants undergoing craniosynostosis surgery.

Ultrasonographic evaluation of gastric emptying after ingesting carbohydrate-rich drink in young children: A randomized crossover study

BACKGROUND

A recent consensus statement in Europe has suggested that the fasting time for clear liquid in children can be shortened to 1 hour before a surgery. However, the study to show that 1-hour fasting time for clear fluids is safe in young children is still lacking. This study aimed to investigate the gastric emptying time for carbohydrate-rich drink and regular 5% glucose solution in children aged 3-7 years.

METHODS

After overnight fasting, individuals were randomly assigned to ingest 5 mL kg^-1 of either carbohydrate-rich drink or 5% glucose solution. One week later, the same subjects were asked to ingest the other one. Ultrasonography was performed to examine the gastric contents. Gastric antral cross-sectional area was measured, and the gastric fluid volume was calculated before and after fluid ingestion within 120 minutes. The primary outcome was the gastric emptying time for both the clear fluids calculated using the antral cross-sectional area and logarithms of gastric fluid volume. The degrees of thirst and hunger of two drinks were evaluated using a visual analogue scale as the secondary outcomes.

RESULTS

Data from 16 individuals were analyzed. In the glucose solution group, the antral cross-sectional area and logarithms of gastric fluid volume returned to baseline at 30 minutes after ingestion. However, in the carbohydrate-rich drink group, the median [interquartile range; range] antral cross-sectional area (3.69 [2.64-5.15; 1.83-8.93] cm² vs 2.41 [2.10-2.96; 1.81-4.37] cm² , P < .001) and mean (95% confidence interval) logarithms of gastric fluid volume (2.54 [2.30-2.79] mL vs 2.12 [1.94-2.30] mL, P = .048) were still higher than at 60 minutes and returned to the baseline values at 90 minutes after ingestion, respectively. The degree of thirst was lower in the glucose solution group than that in the carbohydrate-rich drink group.

CONCLUSIONS

Gastric emptying of carbohydrate-rich drink is slower than that of 5% glucose solution but the residual gastric fluid volume is low one hour after ingestion of 5 mL kg^-1 of either fluid.

Point-of-care ultrasound in the preoperative setting

Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) is a widely used diagnostic tool, especially in emergency and critical care medicine, and it is increasingly being used in the perioperative setting. Its specific role in preoperative assessment of patients, however, has not yet been defined. While some data show innovative use of the technique in the preoperative setting, higher-level evidence to underscore potential advantages is still limited. We review and discuss a range of POCUS examinations which can potentially help anaesthesiologists in the preoperative clinic decide whether to perform additional testing, can assist in selecting the best anaesthetic approach, and can support perioperative and postoperative monitoring.

An exploration of pre-operative fasting practices in adult patients having elective surgery

Background:

Patients fast routinely before elective surgery in order to reduce gastric volume and acidity. The standard fasting time is ‘nil by mouth’ from midnight before surgery. In recent years, new guidelines have recommended that patients remain nil by mouth from clear fluids for 2 hours and from solids for 6 hours. This literature review explored preoperative fasting practices in adult patients from an international perspective.

Methods:

A literature search was undertaken of databases, including CINAHL Plus, PubMed, Medline, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Science Direct, Sage Journals and Embase.

Results:

Anaesthetists were found to possess greater knowledge of reduced preoperative fasting than other health professionals including nurses.

Conclusion:

Actual fasting time was found to be relatively longer than prescribed fasting times.

Perioperative Fluid Therapy for Major Surgery

A moderately liberal IV fluid regimen, using a balanced crystalloid, and consideration of the use of an advanced hemodynamic monitor in a setting of an enhanced recovery pathway are recommended for major surgery.

Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text.

Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Perioperative Nutrition, Metabolic, and Nonsurgical Support of Patients Undergoing Bariatric Procedures - 2019 Update: Cosponsored by American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists/American College of Endocrinology, The Obesity Society, American Society for Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery, Obesity Medicine Association, and American Society of Anesthesiologists

OBJECTIVE

The development of these updated clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) was commissioned by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE), The Obesity Society (TOS), American Society for Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery (ASMBS), Obesity Medicine Association (OMA), and American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) Boards of Directors in adherence with the AACE 2017 protocol for standardized production of CPGs, algorithms, and checklists.

METHODS

Each recommendation was evaluated and updated based on new evidence from 2013 to the present and subjective factors provided by experts.

RESULTS

New or updated topics in this CPG include: contextualization in an adiposity-based chronic disease complications-centric model, nuance-based and algorithm/checklist-assisted clinical decision-making about procedure selection, novel bariatric procedures, enhanced recovery after bariatric surgery protocols, and logistical concerns (including cost factors) in the current health care arena. There are 85 numbered recommendations that have updated supporting evidence, of which 61 are revised and 12 are new. Noting that there can be multiple recommendation statements within a single numbered recommendation, there are 31 (13%) Grade A, 42 (17%) Grade B, 72 (29%) Grade C, and 101 (41%) Grade D recommendations. There are 858 citations, of which 81 (9.4%) are evidence level (EL) 1 (highest), 562 (65.5%) are EL 2, 72 (8.4%) are EL 3, and 143 (16.7%) are EL 4 (lowest).

CONCLUSIONS

Bariatric procedures remain a safe and effective intervention for higher-risk patients with obesity. Clinical decision-making should be evidence based within the context of a chronic disease. A team approach to perioperative care is mandatory, with special attention to nutritional and metabolic issues.

A review of breath analysis techniques in head and neck cancer

Cancers of the head and neck region are a severely disabling group of diseases with no method for early detection. Analysis of exhaled breath volatile organic compounds shows promise as biomarkers for early detection and disease monitoring. This article reviews breath analysis in the setting of head and neck cancer, with a practical focus on breath sampling techniques, detection technologies and valid data analysis methods. Title and abstract keyword searches were conducted on PubMed and Embase databases to identify English language studies without a time-period limitation. The main inclusion criteria were human studies comparing head and neck cancer patients to healthy controls using exhaled breath analysis. Multiple breath collection techniques, three major detection technologies and multiple data analysis methods were identified. However, the variability in techniques and lack of methodological standardization does not allow for adequate study replication or data pooling. Twenty-two volatile organic compounds identified in five studies have been reported to discriminate head and neck cancer patients from healthy controls. Breath analysis for detection of head and neck cancer shows promise as a non-invasive detection tool. However, methodological standardization is paramount for future research study design to provide the potential for translating these techniques into routine clinical use.

Preoperative bedside ultrasound assessment of gastric volume and evaluation of predisposing factors for delayed gastric emptying: a case-control observational study

Perioperative pulmonary aspiration of gastric content is a serious complication. Fasting guidelines try to ensure an empty stomach before intervention. Certain medications or pathologies may cause delayed gastric emptying. Bedside ultrasonography is a useful tool when gastric content status is unclear or in emergency situations where fasting is not feasible. The aim of this prospective case-control observational study was to assess differences in gastric fluid volume between fasted patients with or without predisposing factors for delayed gastric emptying. Patients were preoperatively scanned. Antral cross-sectional area was measured by two tracing methods and total gastric clear fluid volumes were calculated. Data was recorded from September 2018 to March 2019 in a university hospital setting in Barcelona, Spain. Fifty-three patients were enrolled, 23 with delayed gastric emptying predisposing factors (DGEF) and 30 without non-DGEF. Ultrasound-estimated gastric clear fluid volume was 35.21 ± 32.69 mL in the DGEF versus 53.50 ± 30.72 mL in the non-DGEF group (p = 0.08). Average volume per unit of weight was 0.61 ± 0.46 mL/kg. Only 1 patient in the DGEF group had a volume that posed a higher risk of aspiration (1.57 mL/kg). Perfect correlation (R = 0.91; p < 0.01) and concordance (0.91; 95% CI 0.83; 0.95) was found between tracing methods. Minimal gastric content was observed in scheduled surgery in spite of predisposing factors for delayed gastric emptying. Ultrasound clear gastric volume estimation was useful to assess preoperative bedside gastric content.

Anesthesia for the Morbidly Obese Patient

Obesity is considered a major comorbidity, and it is imperative for an anesthesiologist to put increased emphasis on preoperative evaluation and perioperative management. A multidisciplinary team approach is the key for a successful outcome. This article encompasses basic tenets like pathophysiology and pharmacology pertaining to obesity. The authors also talk about important aspects of anesthesia care starting from preoperative assessment and optimization, intraoperative challenges and care, to recovery and discharge of these patients.

The enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocol to promote recovery following esophageal cancer resection

Esophageal cancer surgery, comprising esophagectomy with radical lymphadenectomy, is a complex procedure associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. The enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocol which aims to improve perioperative care, minimize complications, and accelerate recovery is showing promise for achieving better perioperative outcomes. ERAS is a multimodal approach that has been reported to shorten the length of hospital stay, reduce surgical stress response, decrease morbidity, and expedite recovery. While ERAS components straddle preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative periods, they need to be seen in continuum and not as isolated elements. In this review, we elaborate on the components of an ERAS protocol after esophagectomy including preoperative nutrition, prehabilitation, counselling, smoking and alcohol cessation, cardiopulmonary evaluation, surgical technique, anaesthetic management, intra- and postoperative fluid management and pain relief, mobilization and physiotherapy, enteral and oral feeding, removal of drains, and several other components. We also share our own institutional protocol for ERAS following esophageal resections.

Capsule Endoscopy Transit Time to Duodenum: Relation to Patient Demographics

Background

Anesthesia guidelines recommend fasting for at least two hours to minimize aspiration risk related to endoscopic procedures, and the American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE) states that the final oral preparation liquid can be administered three to eight hours before the procedure. We have observed the cancellation of endoscopy procedures if liquids were consumed within four, six, or eight hours of the start time. Objectively, documenting gastric transit time via a review of pill endoscopy data could address clinician concerns, prevent delays in patient care, and improve the rate at which our clinicians practice within national guidelines. The objective was to utilize capsule endoscopy data from our center to report the relationship between patient factors that could affect gastric transit time (GTT) and small bowel transit time (SBTT) such as chronic kidney disease (CKD), diabetes mellitus (DM), nutritional status, and obesity.

Methods

This retrospective review obtained data on adult pill endoscopy (PillCam™ SB 3) (Medtronic, Minneapolis MN) studies on in- and outpatients. Past medical history and laboratory data were abstracted from electronic medical records. Mean GTT and SBTT are reported in minutes + standard deviation (SD) and times were compared accounting for conditions that could prolong transit, such as diabetes mellitus or chronic kidney disease (CKD).

Results

One hundred and sixty-three records reviewed. Four patients were excluded as the pill did not pass out of the stomach. The mean age was 66 years, 57% were female, and 26% were evaluated for gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding. The mean GTT for all patients (n = 159) was 35 + 49 with a median of 19 minutes. There were no statistically significant differences in GTT between the following subgroups: CKD0 (n = 100) 40 + 58 versus CKD5 (n = 11) 35 + 39, albumin > 3.0 (n = 123) 37 + 53 versus albumin < 3.0 (n = 36) 27 + 30, diabetes mellitus (DM) (n = 40) 51 + 71 vs. non-DM (n = 119) 42 + 79, body mass index (BMI) > 30, or aspirin use. The SBTT results in all patients (n = 124) was 238 + 88 minutes. Similarly, there was no relation between SBTT and albumin, any CKD, CKD0 versus CKD5, DM status, or BMI. The patients with the capsule stuck in the stomach did not have any other clinical history to explain this occurrence.

Conclusions

This analysis of objective data regarding pill endoscopy found that the mean GTT was 44 minutes, and it was < 60 minutes for 85% of the cohort. Patient factors were not associated with longer transit times, and this is the first report to document PillCam times in relation to CKD. These data support recommendations that endoscopic procedures, in accordance with anesthesia and ASGE guidelines, can be safely conducted in the majority of patients within 60 minutes of ingesting liquids.

Does a two-minute mini-fluid challenge predict fluid responsiveness in pediatric patients under general anesthesia?

BACKGROUND

Very little evidence for predictive markers of fluid responsiveness has been reported in children as compared to adults. The impact of hypovolemia or hypervolemia on morbidity has driven interest in the fluid challenge titration strategy.

AIM

The objective of this study was to explore the ability of a 3 mL kg^-1 mini-fluid challenge over 2 minutes to predict fluid responsiveness in children under controlled ventilation.

METHODS

Children scheduled for surgery under general anesthesia were included and received a fluid challenge of 15 mL kg^-1 of crystalloid prior to incision administered over 10 minutes in two steps: 3 mL kg^-1 over 2 minutes then 12 mL kg^-1 over 8 minutes. Fluid responsiveness was defined as a change of ≥10% in cardiac output estimated by left ventricular outflow tract velocity time integral (VTI) as measured by transthoracic ultrasound before and after the fluid challenge of 15 mL kg^-1 .

RESULTS

Of the 55 patients included in the analysis, 43 were fluid responders. The increase in the VTI after the mini-fluid challenge (ΔVTI_miniFC ) predicted fluid responsiveness with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.77; 95% CI (0.63-0.87), P = .004. Considering the least significant change which was 7.9%; 95% CI (6-10), the threshold was 8% with a sensitivity of 53%; 95% CI (38-68); and a specificity of 77%; 95% CI (54-100).

CONCLUSION

ΔVTI_miniFC weakly predicted the effects of a fluid challenge of 15 mL kg^-1 of crystalloid in anesthetized children under controlled mechanical ventilation.

Duration of preoperative clear fluid fasting and peripheral intravenous catheterization in children: A single-center observational cohort study of 9693 patients

BACKGROUND

Children routinely undergo inhalational induction of general anesthesia. Intravenous line placement typically occurs after induction of anesthesia and can be challenging, particularly in infants and young children.

AIMS

We conducted a retrospective observational study to determine whether there was an association between clear liquid fasting time and the number of peripheral intravenous catheter insertion attempts in anesthetized children. The secondary aim was to identify factors associated with multiple attempts to insert intravenous lines.

METHODS

After institutional research board approval, we retrieved a data set of all children between 0 months and 18 years who received general anesthesia at our hospital between January 1, 2016, and September 30, 2017. Data included age, gender, weight, race, ASA status, gestational age, number of peripheral intravenous catheter insertion attempts, any assistive device for insertion, and insertion site. Inclusion criteria were mask induction, ASA status 1 or 2, nonemergency, ambulatory surgical procedures, and placement of a single intravenous line during the anesthetic.

RESULTS

A total of 9693 patients were included in the study. Of which 8869 patients required one insertion attempt and 824 underwent multiple insertion attempts. 50% of patients in the single insertion attempt group had clear liquid fasting time <6.9 hours compared to 51.8% of patients requiring multiple attempts. Logistic regression model adjusted for age, ASA status, gender, and BMI did not find an association between duration of clear liquid fasting time and rate of multiple insertion attempts for intravenous catheters (OR: 0.99, 95% CI: 0.98-1.01, P = .47).

CONCLUSION

Clear liquid fasting time was not associated with multiple insertion attempts for intravenous line insertion in children receiving general anesthesia. Factors such as patient age, ethnicity, time of day of induction of anesthesia, and American Society of Anesthesiologists Physical Status classification show a greater association with the risk of multiple intravenous line insertion attempts.

Effects of an Individualized Fasting Program on Fasting Time and Comfort in Infants and Young Children During the Perioperative Period

PURPOSE

The study was designed to evaluate the effect of an individualized fasting program on fasting time and comfort in infants and young children during the perioperative period.

DESIGN

A quasiexperimental design was used.

METHODS

The study included 675 children (intervention = 353, control = 322). Data collection tools included Characteristics of Children Form and the Infant Hunger Rating Scale. The fasting program included individualized fasting education and fasting in batches. On the day of the operation, clear liquids were fed 2 hours before surgery and refed after the patient woke after surgery.

FINDINGS

The duration of perioperative fasting and the time to refeeding were shorter, the hunger scores were lower in the intervention group than those in the control group (P < .05). There was no difference in the incidence of vomiting between the two groups (P > .05), and no coughing and bloating occurred.

CONCLUSIONS

The fasting program for infants and young children can shorten the duration of fasting and can reduce the degree of hunger. This program is safe and feasible.

Gastrointestinal Tract: A Neglected Guardian Angel?

Role of the gastrointestinal (GI) system is not limited to the digestion of food and absorption of water and nutrients. Gastrointestinal mucosa forms a barrier preventing translocation of microbes into the blood. Upper GI tract performs important function of swallowing and prevention of aspiration, failure of which mandates enteral tube feeding. Rate of gastric emptying depends on gastric volume and contents and delayed emptying is observed both in solid and in fatty food. Cricoid pressure during intubation is an important intervention for prevention of aspiration in critically ill patients who are considered as full stomach. To utilize mucosal barrier function optimally, hemodynamically stable patients should preferably receive enteral nutrition even if they are on small doses of vasopressors. Post-pyloric feeds may reduce risk of aspiration and hence are recommended for patients who are deemed to have high risk for aspiration. Bowel sounds have poor reproducibility, sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and interobserver agreement, and absent bowel sounds should not be considered as a contraindication to enteral feeding.

How to cite this article: Kothekar AT, Kulkarni AP. Gastrointestinal Tract: A Neglected Guardian Angel? Indian J Crit Care Med 2020;24(Suppl 4):S146–S151.

Critical Analysis of Guidelines for Providing Sedation to Patients Undergoing Gastrointestinal Endoscopy Procedures

In spite of growing numbers of gastrointestinal endoscopic procedures performed under deep sedation, guidelines are lacking. Hypoxemia and aspiration continue to be the main source of morbidity. Anesthesia providers have tried to address these concerns by modifying their technique and employing newer or improvised devices. In addition, preprocedural evaluation poses many challenges. In many centers, workload pressures determine the time available to perform such an evaluation. A comprehensive history and examination similar to a major surgical procedure is often not possible. As a result, a focused history and examination is essential. This should be followed by an appropriate explanation of risks before obtaining consent. A plan should be in place to manage complications such as aspiration. This paper provides a succinct review of the above aspects.

Benefits of Enhanced Recovery After Surgery in Patients Undergoing Endoscopic Sinus Surgery

Background

Although enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocols have been widely applied during perioperative periods for different diseases, there are few reports of ERAS in patients undergoing endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS). This study therefore aimed to evaluate the benefits of ERAS protocol compared to traditional care following ESS.

Methods

A total of 55 patients with chronic rhinosinusitis undergoing ESS were prospectively assigned to 1 of 5 treatment groups; ERAS groups with postoperative intravenous Flubiprofen Axetil or analgesia pump, traditional care with Flubiprofen Axetil or analgesia pump (NERAS groups), or traditional care without postoperative intravenous analgesia group (control). All patients completed the Kolcaba General Comfort Questionnaire, Medical Outcomes Study Sleep Scale, and Self-rating Anxiety Scale at admission and before discharge. Pain scores were recorded at 2, 6, 24, and 48 hours postsurgery and adverse reactions to analgesics were noted.

Results

Patients in ERAS group demonstrated significantly higher general comfort scores and lower self-rating anxiety scores compared to patients in NERAS and control groups. Compared to control patients, patients in ERAS group reported significantly lower pain scores at 6, 24, and 48 hours. Moreover, pain alleviated from 6 hours postsurgery in ERAS group compared to 48 hours in NERAS group. Patients using opioids experienced more adverse nausea events than patients using only nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

Conclusions

The use of patient-tailored ERAS programs following ESS may help to attain higher general comfort and to alleviate perioperative anxiety compared with traditional perioperative care. Adequate postoperative analgesia with NSAIDs in ERAS protocol may alleviate pain earlier with fewer adverse reactions.

An international multidisciplinary consensus statement on fasting before procedural sedation in adults and children

The multidisciplinary International Committee for the Advancement of Procedural Sedation presents the first fasting and aspiration prevention recommendations specific to procedural sedation, based on an extensive review of the literature. These were developed using Delphi methodology and assessment of the robustness of the available evidence. The literature evidence is clear that fasting, as currently practiced, often substantially exceeds recommended time thresholds and has known adverse consequences, for example, irritability, dehydration and hypoglycaemia. Fasting does not guarantee an empty stomach, and there is no observed association between aspiration and compliance with common fasting guidelines. The probability of clinically important aspiration during procedural sedation is negligible. In the post-1984 literature there are no published reports of aspiration-associated mortality in children, no reports of death in healthy adults (ASA physical status 1 or 2) and just nine reported deaths in adults of ASA physical status 3 or above. Current concerns about aspiration are out of proportion to the actual risk. Given the lower observed frequency of aspiration and mortality than during general anaesthesia, and the theoretical basis for assuming a lesser risk, fasting strategies in procedural sedation can reasonably be less restrictive. We present a consensus-derived algorithm in which each patient is first risk-stratified during their pre-sedation assessment, using evidence-based factors relating to patient characteristics, comorbidities, the nature of the procedure and the nature of the anticipated sedation technique. Graded fasting precautions for liquids and solids are then recommended for elective procedures based upon this categorisation of negligible, mild or moderate aspiration risk. This consensus statement can serve as a resource to practitioners and policymakers who perform and oversee procedural sedation in patients of all ages, worldwide.

Nutritional management of patients undergoing laparoscopic surgery for gastric cancer based on the concept of rapid rehabilitation

As a common malignant tumor, patients with gastric cancer (GC) are prone to malnutrition during the development and treatment of the disease. Fast track surgery (FTS), as a perioperative medical concept based on evidence-based medicine, plays an important role in nutrition management, including preoperative malnutrition screening and treatment, preoperative nutritional management, postoperative early oral feeding, accelerated promotion of gastrointestinal function recovery, and nutritional support. Based on a series of small sample studies, the safety and importance of FTS in laparoscopic nutrition management of GC are gradually emerging, but clinical implementation is difficult. This article will review the research progress of FTS in the field of laparoscopic nutrition management of GC in the past decade.

Glycemic Management in the Operating Room: Screening, Monitoring, Oral Hypoglycemics, and Insulin Therapy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review provides a literature update and practical outline for the management of diabetes and stress hyperglycemia for adult surgical patients in the pre- and intraoperative settings.

RECENT FINDINGS

Hyperglycemia in surgical patients has been associated with increased risk of complication in both diabetic and non-diabetic patients in the perioperative setting. While current recommended perioperative blood glucose target is < 180 mg/dL (10 mmol/L), optimal outcomes may require different treatment targets for diabetic versus non-diabetic patients. Hemoglobin A1C level is associated with elevated risk of hyperglycemia and adverse outcomes, but there is insufficient evidence to recommend routine preoperative testing or optimal values in elective surgical patients. Day of surgery blood glucose testing and treatment are recommended in the perioperative period, and anesthetic management includes appropriate patient selection for use of subcutaneous insulin, intravenous insulin infusions, and insulin pumps. Additionally, administration of both intravenous and perineural dexamethasone is associated with increased blood glucose levels and clinicians should consider the risk benefit ratio in surgical patients. For enhanced recovery after surgery protocols, further evidence is needed to support routine use of carbohydrate loading in diabetic patients. Optimal perioperative care includes screening at-risk patients, use of preoperative oral hypoglycemics and home insulin, anesthetic type and medication selection, blood glucose testing, and treatment for hyperglycemia in the operating room. Partnerships with surgery and endocrinology teams aid optimal postoperative management and discharge planning.