A small family of MYB-regulatory genes controls floral pigmentation intensity and patterning in the genus Antirrhinum

Genetic modification of plant metabolism for human health benefits

There has been considerable research progress over the past decade on elucidating biosynthetic pathways for important human health components of crops. This has enabled the use of genetic modification (GM) techniques to develop crop varieties with increased amounts of essential vitamins and minerals, and improved profiles of 'nutraceutical' compounds. Much of the research into vitamins and minerals has focused on generating new varieties of staple crops to improve the diet of populations in developing nations. Of particular note is the development of new rice lines with increased amounts of provitamin A and iron. Research on modifying production of nutraceuticals has generally been aimed at generating new crops for markets in the developed nations, commonly to deliver distinctive cultivars with high consumer appeal. Most progress on nutraceuticals has been made with just a few types of metabolites to date, in particular in the production of novel long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in oil-seed crops and to increase amounts of flavonoids and carotenoids in tomato and potato. However, given the rapid progress on elucidating plant metabolite biosynthetic pathways, wide-ranging success with metabolic engineering for levels of human health-related compounds in plants would be expected in the near future. A key aspect for future success will be better medical information to guide metabolic engineering endeavors. Although the desired levels of many vitamins are known, detailed information is lacking for most of the nutraceuticals that have attracted much interest over the past few years.

Transcriptional control of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes in extreme phenotypes for berry pigmentation of naturally occurring grapevines

BACKGROUND

Fruit coloration of red-skinned grapevines is mainly due to anthocyanin pigments. We analysed a panel of nine cultivars that included extreme phenotypes for berry colour, ranging from green (absence of anthocyanins) to red, purple, violet and blue. Expression of six genes of the anthocyanin pathway coding for flavanone-hydroxylase (F3H), flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase (F3'H), flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase (F3'5'H), UDP-glucose:flavonoid-3-O-glucosyltransferase (UFGT), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), O-methyltransferase (OMT) and four transcription factors (MybA, MybB, MybC, MybD) was analysed by quantitative RT-PCR at four developmental stages from before the onset of ripening until full maturity and compared to anthocyanin metabolites.

RESULTS

Total anthocyanin content at full maturity correlated well with the cumulative expression of F3H, UFGT and GST throughout ripening. Transcripts of the last two genes were absent in the green-skinned cultivar 'Sauvignonasse', also known as 'Tocai friulano', and were at least 10-fold less abundant in pale red cultivars, such as 'Pinot gris' and 'Gewürztraminer', compared to fully coloured cultivars. Predominance of tri-hydroxylated anthocyanins (delphinidin, petunidin and malvidin) in cultivars bearing dark berries with violet and blue hue was associated with higher ratios of F3'5'H/F3'H transcription, compared to red-skinned cultivars. Higher levels of OMT transcripts were observed in berries of cultivars that accumulated methoxylated forms of anthocyanins more abundantly than non-methoxylated forms.

CONCLUSION

Colour variation of the grape berry conforms to a peculiar pattern of genotype-specific expression of the whole set of anthocyanin genes in a direct transcript-metabolite-phenotype relationship. Cumulative mRNA levels of the structural genes and their relative abundance throughout ripening explained per se the final phenotype for anthocyanin content, anthocyanin composition, colour intensity and colour hue of grapes at berry maturity.

Mapping a candidate gene (MdMYB10) for red flesh and foliage colour in apple

Background

Integrating plant genomics and classical breeding is a challenge for both plant breeders and molecular biologists. Marker-assisted selection (MAS) is a tool that can be used to accelerate the development of novel apple varieties such as cultivars that have fruit with anthocyanin through to the core. In addition, determining the inheritance of novel alleles, such as the one responsible for red flesh, adds to our understanding of allelic variation. Our goal was to map candidate anthocyanin biosynthetic and regulatory genes in a population segregating for the red flesh phenotypes.

Results

We have identified the Rni locus, a major genetic determinant of the red foliage and red colour in the core of apple fruit. In a population segregating for the red flesh and foliage phenotype we have determined the inheritance of the Rni locus and DNA polymorphisms of candidate anthocyanin biosynthetic and regulatory genes. Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) and Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) in the candidate genes were also located on an apple genetic map. We have shown that the MdMYB10 gene co-segregates with the Rni locus and is on Linkage Group (LG) 09 of the apple genome.

Conclusion

We have performed candidate gene mapping in a fruit tree crop and have provided genetic evidence that red colouration in the fruit core as well as red foliage are both controlled by a single locus named Rni. We have shown that the transcription factor MdMYB10 may be the gene underlying Rni as there were no recombinants between the marker for this gene and the red phenotype in a population of 516 individuals. Associating markers derived from candidate genes with a desirable phenotypic trait has demonstrated the application of genomic tools in a breeding programme of a horticultural crop species.

Single gene-mediated shift in pollinator attraction in Petunia

Animal-mediated pollination is essential in plant reproductive biology and is often associated with pollination syndromes, sets of floral traits, such as color, scent, shape, or nectar content. Selection by pollinators is often considered a key factor in floral evolution and plant speciation. Our aim is the identification and characterization of the genetic changes that caused the evolution of divergent pollination syndromes in closely related plant species. We focus on ANTHOCYANIN2 (AN2), a well-defined myb-type transcription factor that is a major determinant of flower color variation between Petunia integrifolia and Petunia axillaris. Analysis of sequence variation in AN2 in wild P. axillaris accessions showed that loss-of-function alleles arose at least five times independently. DNA sequence analysis was complemented by functional assays for pollinator preference using genetic introgressions and transgenics. These results show that AN2 is a major determinant of pollinator attraction. Therefore, changes in a single gene cause a major shift in pollination biology and support the notion that the adaptation of a flowering plant to a new pollinator type may involve a limited number of genes of large effect. Gene identification and analysis of molecular evolution in combination with behavioral and ecological studies can ultimately unravel the evolutionary genetics of pollination syndromes.

White grapes arose through the mutation of two similar and adjacent regulatory genes

Most of the thousands of grapevine cultivars (Vitis vinifera L.) can be divided into two groups, red and white, based on the presence or absence of anthocyanin in the berry skin, which has been found from genetic experiments to be controlled by a single locus. A regulatory gene, VvMYBA1, which could activate anthocyanin biosynthesis in a transient assay, was recently shown not to be transcribed in white berries due to the presence of a retrotransposon in the promoter. We have found that the berry colour locus comprises two very similar genes, VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2, located on a single bacterial artificial chromosome. Either gene can regulate colour in the grape berry. The white berry allele of VvMYBA2 is inactivated by two non-conservative mutations, one leads to an amino acid substitution and the other to a frame shift resulting in a smaller protein. Transient assays showed that either mutation removed the ability of the regulator to switch on anthocyanin biosynthesis. VvMYBA2 sequence analyses, together with marker information, confirmed that 55 white cultivars all contain the white berry allele, but not red berry alleles. These results suggest that all extant white cultivars of grape vines have a common origin. We conclude that rare mutational events occurring in two adjacent genes were essential for the genesis of the white grapes used to produce the white wines and white table grapes we enjoy today.

White grapes arose through the mutation of two similar and adjacent regulatory genes

Most of the thousands of grapevine cultivars (Vitis vinifera L.) can be divided into two groups, red and white, based on the presence or absence of anthocyanin in the berry skin, which has been found from genetic experiments to be controlled by a single locus. A regulatory gene, VvMYBA1, which could activate anthocyanin biosynthesis in a transient assay, was recently shown not to be transcribed in white berries due to the presence of a retrotransposon in the promoter. We have found that the berry colour locus comprises two very similar genes, VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2, located on a single bacterial artificial chromosome. Either gene can regulate colour in the grape berry. The white berry allele of VvMYBA2 is inactivated by two non-conservative mutations, one leads to an amino acid substitution and the other to a frame shift resulting in a smaller protein. Transient assays showed that either mutation removed the ability of the regulator to switch on anthocyanin biosynthesis. VvMYBA2 sequence analyses, together with marker information, confirmed that 55 white cultivars all contain the white berry allele, but not red berry alleles. These results suggest that all extant white cultivars of grape vines have a common origin. We conclude that rare mutational events occurring in two adjacent genes were essential for the genesis of the white grapes used to produce the white wines and white table grapes we enjoy today.

Isolation of a regulatory gene of anthocyanin biosynthesis in tuberous roots of purple-fleshed sweet potato

Many transcriptional factors harboring the R2R3-MYB domain, basic helix-loop-helix domain, or WD40 repeats have been identified in various plant species as regulators of flavonoid biosynthesis in flowers, seeds, and fruits. However, the regulatory elements of flavonoid biosynthesis in underground organs have not yet been elucidated. We isolated the novel MYB genes IbMYB1 and IbMYB2s from purple-fleshed sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L. Lam. cv Ayamurasaki). IbMYB1 was predominantly expressed in the purple flesh of tuberous roots but was not detected (or only scarcely) in other anthocyanin-containing tissues such as nontuberous roots, stems, leaves, or flowers. IbMYB1 was also expressed in the tuberous roots of other purple-fleshed cultivars but not in those of orange-, yellow-, or white-fleshed cultivars. Although the orange- or yellow-fleshed cultivars contained anthocyanins in the skins of their tuberous roots, we could not detect IbMYB1 transcripts in these tissues. These results suggest that IbMYB1 controls anthocyanin biosynthesis specifically in the flesh of tuberous roots. The results of transient and stable transformation experiments indicated that expression of IbMYB1 alone was sufficient for induction of all structural anthocyanin genes and anthocyanin accumulation in the flesh of tuberous roots, as well as in heterologous tissues or heterologous plant species.

Red colouration in apple fruit is due to the activity of the MYB transcription factor, MdMYB10

Anthocyanin concentration is an important determinant of the colour of many fruits. In apple (Malus x domestica), centuries of breeding have produced numerous varieties in which levels of anthocyanin pigment vary widely and change in response to environmental and developmental stimuli. The apple fruit cortex is usually colourless, although germplasm does exist where the cortex is highly pigmented due to the accumulation of either anthocyanins or carotenoids. From studies in a diverse array of plant species, it is apparent that anthocyanin biosynthesis is controlled at the level of transcription. Here we report the transcript levels of the anthocyanin biosynthetic genes in a red-fleshed apple compared with a white-fleshed cultivar. We also describe an apple MYB transcription factor, MdMYB10, that is similar in sequence to known anthocyanin regulators in other species. We further show that this transcription factor can induce anthocyanin accumulation in both heterologous and homologous systems, generating pigmented patches in transient assays in tobacco leaves and highly pigmented apple plants following stable transformation with constitutively expressed MdMYB10. Efficient induction of anthocyanin biosynthesis in transient assays by MdMYB10 was dependent on the co-expression of two distinct bHLH proteins from apple, MdbHLH3 and MdbHLH33. The strong correlation between the expression of MdMYB10 and apple anthocyanin levels during fruit development suggests that this transcription factor is responsible for controlling anthocyanin biosynthesis in apple fruit; in the red-fleshed cultivar and in the skin of other varieties, there is an induction of MdMYB10 expression concurrent with colour formation during development. Characterization of MdMYB10 has implications for the development of new varieties through classical breeding or a biotechnological approach.

Methods for transient assay of gene function in floral tissues

BACKGROUND

There is considerable interest in rapid assays or screening systems for assigning gene function. However, analysis of gene function in the flowers of some species is restricted due to the difficulty of producing stably transformed transgenic plants. As a result, experimental approaches based on transient gene expression assays are frequently used. Biolistics has long been used for transient over-expression of genes of interest, but has not been exploited for gene silencing studies. Agrobacterium-infiltration has also been used, but the focus primarily has been on the transient transformation of leaf tissue.

RESULTS

Two constructs, one expressing an inverted repeat of the Antirrhinum majus (Antirrhinum) chalcone synthase gene (CHS) and the other an inverted repeat of the Antirrhinum transcription factor gene Rosea1, were shown to effectively induce CHS and Rosea1 gene silencing, respectively, when introduced biolistically into petal tissue of Antirrhinum flowers developing in vitro. A high-throughput vector expressing the Antirrhinum CHS gene attached to an inverted repeat of the nos terminator was also shown to be effective. Silencing spread systemically to create large zones of petal tissue lacking pigmentation, with transmission of the silenced state spreading both laterally within the affected epidermal cell layer and into lower cell layers, including the epidermis of the other petal surface. Transient Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of petal tissue of tobacco and petunia flowers in situ or detached was also achieved, using expression of the reporter genes GUS and GFP to visualise transgene expression.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate the feasibility of using biolistics-based transient RNAi, and transient transformation of petal tissue via Agrobacterium infiltration to study gene function in petals. We have also produced a vector for high throughput gene silencing studies, incorporating the option of using T-A cloning to insert the gene sequence of interest. These techniques should allow analysis of gene function in a much broader range of flower species.

New insight into the structures and formation of anthocyanic vacuolar inclusions in flower petals

BACKGROUND

Although the biosynthetic pathways for anthocyanins and their regulation have been well studied, the mechanism of anthocyanin accumulation in the cell is still poorly understood. Different models have been proposed to explain the transport of anthocyanins from biosynthetic sites to the central vacuole, but cellular and subcellular information is still lacking for reconciliation of different lines of evidence in various anthocyanin sequestration studies. Here, we used light and electron microscopy to investigate the structures and the formation of anthocyanic vacuolar inclusions (AVIs) in lisianthus (Eustoma grandiflorum) petals.

RESULTS

AVIs in the epidermal cells of different regions of the petal were investigated. Three different forms of AVIs were observed: vesicle-like, rod-like and irregular shaped. In all cases, EM examinations showed no membrane encompassing the AVI. Instead, the AVI itself consisted of membranous and thread structures throughout. Light and EM microscopy analyses demonstrated that anthocyanins accumulated as vesicle-like bodies in the cytoplasm, which themselves were contained in prevacuolar compartments (PVCs). The vesicle-like bodies seemed to be transported into the central vacuole through the merging of the PVCs and the central vacuole in the epidermal cells. These anthocyanin-containing vesicle-like bodies were subsequently ruptured to form threads in the vacuole. The ultimate irregular AVIs in the cells possessed a very condensed inner and relatively loose outer structure.

CONCLUSION

Our results strongly suggest the existence of mass transport for anthocyanins from biosynthetic sites in the cytoplasm to the central vacuole. Anthocyanin-containing PVCs are important intracellular vesicles during the anthocyanin sequestration to the central vacuole and these specific PVCs are likely derived directly from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in a similar manner to the transport vesicles of vacuolar storage proteins. The membrane-like and thread structures of AVIs point to the involvement of intravacuolar membranes and/or anthocyanin intermolecular association in the central vacuole.

Molecular genetics of berry colour variation in table grape

The genetics and biochemistry of anthocyanins and flavonol biosynthesis and their role in plant organ pigmentation is well established in model species. However, the genetic basis of colour variation is species specific and understanding this variation is very relevant in many fruit and flower crop species. Among grape cultivars, there is a wide genetic variation for berry colour ranging from yellow-green ("white" cultivars) to dark blue berries. Berry colour results from the synthesis and accumulation of anthocyanins in the berry skin, which in plants is commonly regulated by transcription factors belonging to the MYB and bHLH families. In this work, we aimed to identify the major genetic determinants of berry colour variation in a large collection of table grape cultivars and somatic variants. The genetic analyses of berry colour in a few grape segregating progenies had previously identified a single locus on linkage group 2 responsible for colour variation. Furthermore, somatic variation for berry skin colour in cultivar Italia had been associated with the presence of a Gret1 retrotransposon in the promoter region of VvmybA1, a Myb gene whose expression is associated to skin colouration. The results show that VvmybA1 is the gene underlying the mapped locus controlling berry colour in grape. Additionally, the molecular analyses indicate that genetic and somatic berry colour variation can be associated to molecular variation at VvmybA1 in more than 95% of the analyzed cultivars. Thus, VvmybA1 is a major determinant of berry colour variation in table grape and its instability is the major cause of somatic variation for this trait.

Evolutionary Paths Underlying Flower Color Variation in Antirrhinum

To understand evolutionary paths connecting diverse biological forms, we defined a three-dimensional genotypic space separating two flower color morphs of Antirrhinum. A hybrid zone between morphs showed a steep cline specifically at genes controlling flower color differences, indicating that these loci are under selection. Antirrhinum species with diverse floral phenotypes formed a U-shaped cloud within the genotypic space. We propose that this cloud defines an evolutionary path that allows flower color to evolve while circumventing less-adaptive regions. Hybridization between morphs located in different arms of the U-shaped path yields low-fitness genotypes, accounting for the observed steep clines at hybrid zones.