401
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Abstract
The intermediate filament proteins, A- and B-type lamins, form the nuclear lamina scaffold adjacent to the inner nuclear membrane. Lamins also contribute to chromatin regulation and various signaling pathways affecting gene expression. In this review, Osmanagic-Myers et al. focus on the role of nuclear lamins in mechanosensing and also discuss how disease-linked lamin mutants may impair the response of cells to mechanical stimuli and influence the properties of the extracellular matrix. The intermediate filament proteins, A- and B-type lamins, form the nuclear lamina scaffold adjacent to the inner nuclear membrane. B-type lamins confer elasticity, while A-type lamins lend viscosity and stiffness to nuclei. Lamins also contribute to chromatin regulation and various signaling pathways affecting gene expression. The mechanical roles of lamins and their functions in gene regulation are often viewed as independent activities, but recent findings suggest a highly cross-linked and interdependent regulation of these different functions, particularly in mechanosignaling. In this newly emerging concept, lamins act as a “mechanostat” that senses forces from outside and responds to tension by reinforcing the cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix. A-type lamins, emerin, and the linker of the nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex directly transmit forces from the extracellular matrix into the nucleus. These mechanical forces lead to changes in the molecular structure, modification, and assembly state of A-type lamins. This in turn activates a tension-induced “inside-out signaling” through which the nucleus feeds back to the cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix to balance outside and inside forces. These functions regulate differentiation and may be impaired in lamin-linked diseases, leading to cellular phenotypes, particularly in mechanical load-bearing tissues.
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402
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Chang W, Worman HJ, Gundersen GG. Accessorizing and anchoring the LINC complex for multifunctionality. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 208:11-22. [PMID: 25559183 PMCID: PMC4284225 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201409047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex, composed of outer and inner nuclear membrane Klarsicht, ANC-1, and Syne homology (KASH) and Sad1 and UNC-84 (SUN) proteins, respectively, connects the nucleus to cytoskeletal filaments and performs diverse functions including nuclear positioning, mechanotransduction, and meiotic chromosome movements. Recent studies have shed light on the source of this diversity by identifying factors associated with the complex that endow specific functions as well as those that differentially anchor the complex within the nucleus. Additional diversity may be provided by accessory factors that reorganize the complex into higher-ordered arrays. As core components of the LINC complex are associated with several diseases, understanding the role of accessory and anchoring proteins could provide insights into pathogenic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wakam Chang
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology and Department of Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032
| | - Howard J Worman
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology and Department of Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032 Department of Pathology and Cell Biology and Department of Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032
| | - Gregg G Gundersen
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology and Department of Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032
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403
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Gruenbaum Y, Foisner R. Lamins: nuclear intermediate filament proteins with fundamental functions in nuclear mechanics and genome regulation. Annu Rev Biochem 2015; 84:131-64. [PMID: 25747401 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-biochem-060614-034115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 354] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Lamins are intermediate filament proteins that form a scaffold, termed nuclear lamina, at the nuclear periphery. A small fraction of lamins also localize throughout the nucleoplasm. Lamins bind to a growing number of nuclear protein complexes and are implicated in both nuclear and cytoskeletal organization, mechanical stability, chromatin organization, gene regulation, genome stability, differentiation, and tissue-specific functions. The lamin-based complexes and their specific functions also provide insights into possible disease mechanisms for human laminopathies, ranging from muscular dystrophy to accelerated aging, as observed in Hutchinson-Gilford progeria and atypical Werner syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosef Gruenbaum
- Department of Genetics, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel;
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404
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Dingal PCDP, Discher DE. Systems mechanobiology: tension-inhibited protein turnover is sufficient to physically control gene circuits. Biophys J 2014; 107:2734-43. [PMID: 25468352 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2014.10.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2014] [Revised: 10/17/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanotransduction pathways convert forces that stress and strain structures within cells into gene expression levels that impact development, homeostasis, and disease. The levels of some key structural proteins in the nucleus, cytoskeleton, or extracellular matrix have been recently reported to scale with tissue- and cell-level forces or mechanical properties such as stiffness, and so the mathematics of mechanotransduction becomes important to understand. Here, we show that if a given structural protein positively regulates its own gene expression, then stresses need only inhibit degradation of that protein to achieve stable, mechanosensitive gene expression. This basic use-it-or-lose-it module is illustrated by application to meshworks of nuclear lamin A, minifilaments of myosin II, and extracellular matrix collagen fibers—all of which possess filamentous coiled-coil/supercoiled structures. Past experiments not only suggest that tension suppresses protein degradation mediated and/or initiated by various enzymes but also that transcript levels vary with protein levels because key transcription factors are regulated by these structural proteins. Coupling between modules occurs within single cells and between cells in tissue, as illustrated during embryonic heart development where cardiac fibroblasts make collagen that cardiomyocytes contract. With few additional assumptions, the basic module has sufficient physics to control key structural genes in both development and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- P C Dave P Dingal
- Molecular and Cell Biophysics Laboratory, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Dennis E Discher
- Molecular and Cell Biophysics Laboratory, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Graduate Groups in Physics and Cell & Molecular Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
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405
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Cost AL, Ringer P, Chrostek-Grashoff A, Grashoff C. How to Measure Molecular Forces in Cells: A Guide to Evaluating Genetically-Encoded FRET-Based Tension Sensors. Cell Mol Bioeng 2014; 8:96-105. [PMID: 25798203 PMCID: PMC4361753 DOI: 10.1007/s12195-014-0368-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of cells to sense and respond to mechanical forces is central to a wide range of biological processes and plays an important role in numerous pathologies. The molecular mechanisms underlying cellular mechanotransduction, however, have remained largely elusive because suitable methods to investigate subcellular force propagation were missing. Here, we review recent advances in the development of biosensors that allow molecular force measurements. We describe the underlying principle of currently available techniques and propose a strategy to systematically evaluate new Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Lena Cost
- Group of Molecular Mechanotransduction, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18, Martinsried, 82152 Germany
| | - Pia Ringer
- Group of Molecular Mechanotransduction, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18, Martinsried, 82152 Germany
| | - Anna Chrostek-Grashoff
- Group of Molecular Mechanotransduction, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18, Martinsried, 82152 Germany
| | - Carsten Grashoff
- Group of Molecular Mechanotransduction, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18, Martinsried, 82152 Germany
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406
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Chen W, Shao Y, Li X, Zhao G, Fu J. Nanotopographical Surfaces for Stem Cell Fate Control: Engineering Mechanobiology from the Bottom. NANO TODAY 2014; 9:759-784. [PMID: 25883674 PMCID: PMC4394389 DOI: 10.1016/j.nantod.2014.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
During embryogenesis and tissue maintenance and repair in an adult organism, a myriad of stem cells are regulated by their surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM) enriched with tissue/organ-specific nanoscale topographical cues to adopt different fates and functions. Attributed to their capability of self-renewal and differentiation into most types of somatic cells, stem cells also hold tremendous promise for regenerative medicine and drug screening. However, a major challenge remains as to achieve fate control of stem cells in vitro with high specificity and yield. Recent exciting advances in nanotechnology and materials science have enabled versatile, robust, and large-scale stem cell engineering in vitro through developments of synthetic nanotopographical surfaces mimicking topological features of stem cell niches. In addition to generating new insights for stem cell biology and embryonic development, this effort opens up unlimited opportunities for innovations in stem cell-based applications. This review is therefore to provide a summary of recent progress along this research direction, with perspectives focusing on emerging methods for generating nanotopographical surfaces and their applications in stem cell research. Furthermore, we provide a review of classical as well as emerging cellular mechano-sensing and -transduction mechanisms underlying stem cell nanotopography sensitivity and also give some hypotheses in regard to how a multitude of signaling events in cellular mechanotransduction may converge and be integrated into core pathways controlling stem cell fate in response to extracellular nanotopography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiqiang Chen
- Integrated Biosystems and Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Yue Shao
- Integrated Biosystems and Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Xiang Li
- Integrated Biosystems and Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Gang Zhao
- Department of Electronic Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, P. R. China
| | - Jianping Fu
- Integrated Biosystems and Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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407
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George CM, Bozler J, Nguyen HQ, Bosco G. Condensins are Required for Maintenance of Nuclear Architecture. Cells 2014; 3:865-82. [PMID: 25153163 PMCID: PMC4197639 DOI: 10.3390/cells3030865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2014] [Revised: 06/20/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The 3-dimensional spatial organization of eukaryotic genomes is important for regulation of gene expression as well as DNA damage repair. It has been proposed that one basic biophysical property of all nuclei is that interphase chromatin must be kept in a condensed prestressed state in order to prevent entropic pressure of the DNA polymer from expanding and disrupting the nuclear envelope. Although many factors can contribute to specific organizational states to compact chromatin, the mechanisms through which such interphase chromatin compaction is maintained are not clearly understood. Condensin proteins are known to exert compaction forces on chromosomes in anticipation of mitosis, but it is not known whether condensins also function to maintain interphase prestressed chromatin states. Here we show that RNAi depletion of the N-CAP-H2, N-CAP-D3 and SMC2 subunits of human condensin II leads to dramatic disruption of nuclear architecture and nuclear size. This is consistent with the idea that condensin mediated chromatin compaction contributes significantly to the prestressed condensed state of the interphase nucleus, and when such compaction forces are disrupted nuclear size and shape change due to chromatin expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn M George
- Department of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH 03755, USA.
| | - Julianna Bozler
- Department of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH 03755, USA.
| | - Huy Q Nguyen
- Department of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH 03755, USA.
| | - Giovanni Bosco
- Department of Genetics, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH 03755, USA.
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408
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Matrix softness regulates plasticity of tumour-repopulating cells via H3K9 demethylation and Sox2 expression. Nat Commun 2014; 5:4619. [PMID: 25099074 PMCID: PMC4133791 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumour-repopulating cells (TRCs) are a self-renewing, tumorigenic subpopulation of cancer cells critical in cancer progression. However, the underlying mechanisms of how TRCs maintain their self-renewing capability remain elusive. Here we show that relatively undifferentiated melanoma TRCs exhibit plasticity in Cdc42-mediated mechanical stiffening, histone 3 lysine residue 9 (H3K9) methylation, Sox2 expression and self-renewal capability. In contrast to differentiated melanoma cells, TRCs have a low level of H3K9 methylation that is unresponsive to matrix stiffness or applied forces. Silencing H3K9 methyltransferase G9a or SUV39h1 elevates the self-renewal capability of differentiated melanoma cells in a Sox2-dependent manner. Mechanistically, H3K9 methylation at the Sox2 promoter region inhibits Sox2 expression that is essential in maintaining self-renewal and tumorigenicity of TRCs both in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, our data suggest that 3D soft-fibrin-matrix-mediated cell softening, H3K9 demethylation and Sox2 gene expression are essential in regulating TRC self-renewal. Soft 3D gels can promote the growth of tumour-repopulating cells, a self-renewing subpopulation of cancer cells critical in cancer progression. Here, the authors investigate the mechanism behind this phenomenon and show that the histone 3 lysine residue 9 methylation and Sox2 are controlling this process.
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409
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Fedorchak GR, Kaminski A, Lammerding J. Cellular mechanosensing: getting to the nucleus of it all. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 115:76-92. [PMID: 25008017 PMCID: PMC4252489 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2014.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Accepted: 06/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cells respond to mechanical forces by activating specific genes and signaling pathways that allow the cells to adapt to their physical environment. Examples include muscle growth in response to exercise, bone remodeling based on their mechanical load, or endothelial cells aligning under fluid shear stress. While the involved downstream signaling pathways and mechanoresponsive genes are generally well characterized, many of the molecular mechanisms of the initiating 'mechanosensing' remain still elusive. In this review, we discuss recent findings and accumulating evidence suggesting that the cell nucleus plays a crucial role in cellular mechanotransduction, including processing incoming mechanoresponsive signals and even directly responding to mechanical forces. Consequently, mutations in the involved proteins or changes in nuclear envelope composition can directly impact mechanotransduction signaling and contribute to the development and progression of a variety of human diseases, including muscular dystrophy, cancer, and the focus of this review, dilated cardiomyopathy. Improved insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying nuclear mechanotransduction, brought in part by the emergence of new technologies to study intracellular mechanics at high spatial and temporal resolution, will not only result in a better understanding of cellular mechanosensing in normal cells but may also lead to the development of novel therapies in the many diseases linked to defects in nuclear envelope proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory R Fedorchak
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Ashley Kaminski
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Jan Lammerding
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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410
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Berk JM, Simon DN, Jenkins-Houk CR, Westerbeck JW, Grønning-Wang LM, Carlson CR, Wilson KL. The molecular basis of emerin-emerin and emerin-BAF interactions. J Cell Sci 2014; 127:3956-69. [PMID: 25052089 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.148247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerin is a conserved membrane component of nuclear lamina structure. Here, we report an advance in understanding the molecular basis of emerin function: intermolecular emerin-emerin association. There were two modes: one mediated by association of residues 170-220 in one emerin molecule to residues 170-220 in another, and the second involving residues 170-220 and 1-132. Deletion analysis showed residues 187-220 contain a positive element essential for intermolecular association in cells. By contrast, deletion of residues 168-186 inactivated a proposed negative element, required to limit or control association. Association of GFP-emerin with nuclear BAF in cells required the LEM domain (residues 1-47) and the positive element. Emerin peptide arrays revealed direct binding of residues 170-220 to residues 206-225 (the proposed positive element), residues 147-174 (particularly P(153)MYGRDSAYQSITHYRP(169)) and the LEM domain. Emerin residues 1-132 and 159-220 were each sufficient to bind lamin A or B1 tails in vitro, identifying two independent regions of molecular contact with lamins. These results, and predicted emerin intrinsic disorder, support the hypothesis that there are multiple 'backbone' and LEM-domain configurations in a proposed intermolecular emerin network at the nuclear envelope.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M Berk
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA
| | - Dan N Simon
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA
| | - Clifton R Jenkins-Houk
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA
| | - Jason W Westerbeck
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA
| | - Line M Grønning-Wang
- Department of Nutrition, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, 0317 Oslo, Norway
| | - Cathrine R Carlson
- Institute for Experimental Medical Research, Oslo University Hospital and University of Oslo, 0424 Oslo, Norway KG Jebsen Cardiac Research Center and Center for Heart Failure Research, University of Oslo, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Katherine L Wilson
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA
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411
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Swift J, Discher DE. The nuclear lamina is mechano-responsive to ECM elasticity in mature tissue. J Cell Sci 2014; 127:3005-15. [PMID: 24963133 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.149203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
How cells respond to physical cues in order to meet and withstand the physical demands of their immediate surroundings has been of great interest for many years, with current research efforts focused on mechanisms that transduce signals into gene expression. Pathways that mechano-regulate the entry of transcription factors into the cell nucleus are emerging, and our most recent studies show that the mechanical properties of the nucleus itself are actively controlled in response to the elasticity of the extracellular matrix (ECM) in both mature and developing tissue. In this Commentary, we review the mechano-responsive properties of nuclei as determined by the intermediate filament lamin proteins that line the inside of the nuclear envelope and that also impact upon transcription factor entry and broader epigenetic mechanisms. We summarize the signaling pathways that regulate lamin levels and cell-fate decisions in response to a combination of ECM mechanics and molecular cues. We will also discuss recent work that highlights the importance of nuclear mechanics in niche anchorage and cell motility during development, hematopoietic differentiation and cancer metastasis, as well as emphasizing a role for nuclear mechanics in protecting chromatin from stress-induced damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joe Swift
- Molecular and Cell Biophysics Lab, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Dennis E Discher
- Molecular and Cell Biophysics Lab, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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412
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Abstract
The nucleus of naïve mouse embryonic stem cells in transition to differentiation expands when the cells are stretched and contracts when they are compressed. What drives this auxetic phenotype is, however, unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China, and Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
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413
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414
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Wyatt EJ, Sweeney HL, McNally EM. Meeting Report: New Directions in the Biology and Disease of Skeletal Muscle 2014. J Neuromuscul Dis 2014; 1:197-206. [PMID: 26207203 PMCID: PMC4508866 DOI: 10.3233/jnd-149003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The New Directions in the Biology and Disease of Skeletal Muscle is a scientific meeting, held every other year, with the stated purpose of bringing together scientists, clinicians, industry representatives and patient advocacy groups to disseminate new discovery useful for treatment inherited forms of neuromuscular disease, primarily the muscular dystrophies. This meeting originated as a response the Muscular Dystrophy Care Act in order to provide a venue for the free exchange of information, with the emphasis on unpublished or newly published data. Highlights of this years' meeting included results from early phase clinical trials for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, progress in understanding the epigenetic defects in Fascioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy and new mechanisms of muscle membrane repair. The following is a brief report of the highlights from the conference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene J Wyatt
- Department of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL USA
| | - H Lee Sweeney
- Department of Physiology, The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA USA
| | - Elizabeth M McNally
- Department of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL USA ; Department of Human Genetics, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL USA
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