Drug-induced, Ro/SSA-positive cutaneous lupus erythematosus

SARS-CoV-2 infection and SLE: endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis, and thrombosis

An increased risk of atherosclerotic and thrombotic complications characterizes connective tissue diseases. Endothelial dysfunction is the basis for the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis and thrombosis. We present systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) as a model rheumatic disease with endothelial dysfunction and discuss its mechanisms, factors that influence the early onset and rapid progression of atherosclerosis, and the increased risk of thromboembolic events. We focus on established methods to improve endothelium function, including statins, antiplatelet, and antithrombotic therapy. Hypercoagulable and hypofibrinolitic states and a hyperinflammatory response characterize severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. Several pathogenic mechanisms are typical for an acute phase of Covid-19 post-Covid syndrome and connective tissue diseases: endothelial dysfunction, elevated antiphospholipid antibody titer, activation of the complement system, and formation of extracellular neutrophil traps (NET). The current review discusses the mechanisms underlying SLE and the COVID-19 in the context of endothelial function, atherosclerosis, and thrombosis (Graphical abstract). Key Points • The pathophysiology of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and Covid-19 shows some similarities, such as endothelial cell activation and dysfunction, the activation of complementary systems, the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies, and the formation of extracellular neutrophil traps. • Autoimmunity in both diseases creates the basis for hyperinflammatory, hypercoagulable, and hypofibrinolitic states and their thromboembolic complications. • This paper presents our perspective on the mechanisms behind the cardiovascular manifestations of SLE and COVID-19, with a particular emphasis on endothelial dysfunction. Covid-19 and systemic lupus erythematosus-potential similarities in pathophysiology. Figures of the panel illustrate the clinical manifestations of endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis, and thromboembolism, including coronary artery disease ([A] coronary angiography with left anterior descending artery stenosis and [B] scintigraphy with reduced perfusion in the myocardial apical segments), stroke ([C] carotid angiography, left carotid artery occlusion) and pulmonary embolism ([D]computed tomography with thrombus in the right pulmonary artery).

Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus as a rare complication of disease-modifying therapy administration in multiple sclerosis: case report

BACKGROUND

Teriflunomide, the active metabolite of leflunomide, is a disease-modifying therapy drug used for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS), yet the complications associated with this drug remain not fully understood. Here we present the rare case of a 28-year-old female MS patient who developed subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE) following teriflunomide treatment. Though SCLE has been reported to be associated with leflunomide, the current report represents the first documented evidence demonstrating SCLE as a potential teriflunomide treatment-related complication. Additionally, a literature review on the leflunomide-induced SCLE was conducted to emphasize the association of SCLE with teriflunomide, specifically amongst the female demographic with a preexisting autoimmune diathesis.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 28-year-old female first presented with MS symptoms in the left upper limb along with blurred vision in the left eye. Medical and family histories were unremarkable. The patient exhibited positive serum biomarkers including ANA, Ro/SSA, La/SSB, and Ro-52 antibodies. Relapsing-remitting MS was diagnosed according to the 2017 McDonald's diagnostic criteria, and remission was achieved upon intravenous administration of methylprednisolone followed by teriflunomide sequential therapy. Three months post-teriflunomide treatment, the patient developed multiple facial cutaneous lesions. SCLE was subsequently diagnosed and was attributed to treatment-related complication. Interventions include oral administration of hydroxychloroquine and tofacitinib citrate effectively resolved cutaneous lesions. Discontinuation of hydroxychloroquine and tofacitinib citrate treatment led to recurring SCLE symptoms under continuous teriflunomide treatment. Full remission of facial annular plaques was achieved after re-treatment with hydroxychloroquine and tofacitinib citrate. The patient's clinical condition remained stable in long-term outpatient follow-ups.

CONCLUSIONS

As teriflunomide has become a standard disease-modifying therapy for MS, the current case report highlights the importance of monitoring treatment-related complications, specifically in relation to SCLE symptoms.

Subacute Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus-Like Eruption Induced by Durvalumab: A Case Report and Literature Review

Reports of immune-related adverse events caused by programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) inhibitor have been emerging. Herein, we report a subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE)-like eruption presented after the treatment of durvalumab in a patient with extensive-stage small cell lung carcinoma. A 74-year-old Thai man was referred to our department after experiencing multiple dusky red to brownish papules and patches with scale and erosions on photo-distributed areas after receiving 3 infusion cycles of durvalumab. Histological finding revealed epidermal atrophy with interface changes and superficial perivascular infiltration of lymphocytes. Serum antinuclear antibodies (ANA) was 1:320 and anti-Ro/Sjogren's-syndrome-related antigen A (anti-Ro/SSA) antibodies were positive (2+). Based on the history and clinicopathological correlation, the diagnosis of SCLE-like eruption due to durvalumab was made. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case of durvalumab-induced SCLE.

Cutaneous drug-induced lupus erythematosus: Clinical and immunological characteristics and update on new associated drugs

Cutaneous drug-induced lupus erythematosus (CDILE) is a lupus-like syndrome related to drug exposure which typically resolves after drug discontinuation. It can present as a systemic or a sole cutaneous form and different drugs may be associated with each form. CDILE pharmacoepidemiology is constantly changing. Indeed, older drugs primarily associated with systemic CDILE are no longer prescribed and new drugs associated with either cutaneous or systemic CDILE have emerged. The present study discusses the clinical and laboratory aspects of CDILE and the postulated pathogenesis, and it provides an update on implicated drugs. We performed a literature review to single out the new drugs associated with CDILE in the past decade (January 2010-June 2020). Among 109 drugs reported to induce CDILE in 472 patients, we identified anti-TNFα, proton-pump inhibitors, antineoplastic drugs, and, in particular, checkpoint inhibitors, as emerging drugs in CDILE. Most of the published studies are cases reports or small case series, and further larger studies as well as the development of validated classification criteria are needed to better understand and characterize their implication in CDILE.

Drug-Induced Photosensitivity-From Light and Chemistry to Biological Reactions and Clinical Symptoms

Photosensitivity is one of the most common cutaneous adverse drug reactions. There are two types of drug-induced photosensitivity: photoallergy and phototoxicity. Currently, the number of photosensitization cases is constantly increasing due to excessive exposure to sunlight, the aesthetic value of a tan, and the increasing number of photosensitizing substances in food, dietary supplements, and pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. The risk of photosensitivity reactions relates to several hundred externally and systemically administered drugs, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular, psychotropic, antimicrobial, antihyperlipidemic, and antineoplastic drugs. Photosensitivity reactions often lead to hospitalization, additional treatment, medical management, decrease in patient's comfort, and the limitations of drug usage. Mechanisms of drug-induced photosensitivity are complex and are observed at a cellular, molecular, and biochemical level. Photoexcitation and photoconversion of drugs trigger multidirectional biological reactions, including oxidative stress, inflammation, and changes in melanin synthesis. These effects contribute to the appearance of the following symptoms: erythema, swelling, blisters, exudation, peeling, burning, itching, and hyperpigmentation of the skin. This article reviews in detail the chemical and biological basis of drug-induced photosensitivity. The following factors are considered: the chemical properties, the influence of individual ranges of sunlight, the presence of melanin biopolymers, and the defense mechanisms of particular types of tested cells.

Systematic Review: Monoclonal Antibody-Induced Subacute Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus

Background

Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE) lacks consensus diagnostic criteria and the pathogenesis is poorly understood. There are increasing reports of SCLE induced by monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), but there are limited data on the aetiology, clinical characteristics and natural course of this disease.

Methods

We devised a set of diagnostic criteria for SCLE in collaboration with a multinational, multispecialty panel. This systematic review employed a two-layered search strategy of five databases for cases of mAb-induced SCLE (PROSPERO registered protocol CRD42019116521). To explore the relationship between relative mAb use and the number of SCLE cases reported, the estimated number of mAb users was modelled from 2013 to 2018 global commercial data and estimated annual therapy costs.

Results

From 40 papers, we identified 52 cases of mAb-induced SCLE, occurring in a cohort that was 73% female and with a median age of 61 years. Fifty percent of cases were induced by anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-ɑ agents. A median of three drug doses preceded SCLE onset and the lesions lasted a median of 7 weeks after drug cessation. Oral and topical corticosteroids were most frequently used. Of the licensed mAbs, adalimumab, denosumab, rituximab, etanercept and infliximab were calculated to have the highest relative number of yearly users based on global sales data. Comparing the number of mAb-induced SCLE cases with estimated yearly users, the checkpoint inhibitors pembrolizumab and nivolumab showed strikingly high rates of SCLE relative to their global use, but ipilimumab did not.

Conclusion

We present the first systematic review characterising mAb-induced SCLE with respect to triggers, clinical signs, laboratory findings, prognosis and treatment approaches. We identify elevated rates associated with the use of checkpoint inhibitors and anti-TNFɑ agents.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s40268-020-00320-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Development of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus After Infectious Mononucleosis in a 64-Year-Old Woman

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by heterogeneous symptoms that can manifest in any organ, and often presents at a young age. Infectious mononucleosis (IM) is the acute clinical manifestation of Epstein–Barr virus (EBV). It is characterized by low-grade fever, malaise, lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly, and occasionally symmetrical arthralgias. It has been proposed that EBV is a trigger for new-onset SLE, and patients with autoimmune disorders such as SLE are more likely to have recurrent IM infections. The patient, a 64-year old Caucasian female who’s only past medical history was hypertension, developed several months–long period of vague symptoms, including fatigue, malaise, nausea, and nonbilious vomiting with oral intake. She presented with symmetrical polyarthritis involving the hands and elbows, with no history of arthritis before this episode. At the 5-month follow-up, she presented with worsening arthritis bilaterally in her elbows and in her right knee. For several decades, there has been a theoretical association between EBV and SLE, with EBV thought to be one of the many possible triggers for development of SLE. Based on the disease course, we theorize that the patient’s IM and EBV infection led to development of SLE. A small fraction of SLE cases have been reported in literature to be associated with EBV. This case adds to that literature with EBV triggering development of SLE in a seemingly previously asymptomatic patient.

Drug Hypersensitivity Reactions

Drug hypersensitivity reactions (DHRs) may be classified based on timing (immediate vs delayed), mechanisms, and pattern of clinical manifestations. Management may include selection of alternative, non-cross reactive agents, drug allergy testing, graded challenge and/or desensitization. Immediate skin testing only identifies risk for immediate-type allergic DHR and has a negative predictive value for only a limited number of drugs (eg, penicillin). Desensitization induces a temporary state of tolerance that is maintained only so long as the drug is continued. This article discusses special considerations about antibiotics, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, anesthetic agents, aspirin and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, radiocontrast media, and chemotherapeutic agents.

Cutaneous lupus erythematosus induced by drugs - novel insights

Introduction: There is a growing list of drugs implicated in inducing both subacute and chronic forms of cutaneous lupus erythematosus. It is important to recognize these drugs in order to quickly treat patients with drug induced disease.Areas covered: This paper reviews the current literature describing drugs implicated in causing cutaneous lupus erythematosus. A Pubmed search was used to compile a list of medications implicated up to August 2019. It reviews new classes of drugs identified as causing cutaneous lupus erythematosus, the pathophysiology of the disease process, and current recommendations for treatment of the disease.Expert opinion: Many drugs have been identified as inducing lupus, and many more continue to be described in new reports. Further research is needed to understand this phenomenon, which will aid in the diagnosis and treatment of affected patients.

Cutaneous lupus erythematosus: Reflecting on practice-changing observations over the past 50 years

Several historical observations have led to the current understanding of the diagnosis, evaluation, and management of patients with cutaneous lupus erythematosus. Seminal advances in the management of this disease include the development of a classification system for cutaneous lupus, the use of a validated scoring system to assess patient disease activity, and expansion of knowledge of the action spectrum of this disease; further, observations regarding certain medications as potential causes of subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus, the risk of progression from "pure" cutaneous disease to systemic disease, and traditional versus newer therapies are reviewed with closer inspection.

A pilot study evaluating biomarker development for drug-induced chronic eczematous eruptions of aging individuals

Background

Identifying the drug(s) responsible for drug-induced chronic eczematous eruptions of aging individuals (CEEA) is a clinical challenge in patients on multiple medications. Reliable in vitro testing methods and biomarkers are needed to identify the causative agent and allow simultaneous assessment of T-cell responses to multiple drugs being taken concurrently. This study examined the feasibility of using in vitro, drug-specific T cell activation responses as a biomarker for drug-induced CEEA.

Methods

This was a single center, proof-of-concept pilot study at the University of Utah Hospital, Salt Lake City, Utah. Eight aging study subjects having a history suggestive of chronic eczematous drug eruptions suspected to have resulted from calcium channel blocker (CCB) and/or hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ) hypersensitivity plus three matched aging control subjects were identified. Drug patch testing for CCB and/or HCTZ, in vitro drug antigen-induced lymphocyte proliferation assays, and multianalyte-determined cytokine release assays were performed before and after HCTZ and/or CCB incubation.

Results

All study and control subject blood samples tested failed to demonstrate detectable enhanced lymphocyte proliferation or cytokine release to in vitro CCBs or HCTZ challenge when tested with a fairly wide range of drug concentrations. Additionally, none of the enrolled patients developed a positive patch test to CCBs and/or HCTZ.

Conclusions

This pilot study aimed to correlate in vitro drug-induced T lymphocyte transformation and cytokine production with the presence of drug-induced CEEA. Failure to identify T cell proliferative responses to CCB drug antigens in our in vitro studies could have, in part, resulted from a pharmacologic inhibiting effect of CCB on T cell activation.

Topical drug-induced subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus isolated to the hands

Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE) is a well-defined subtype of lupus erythematosus, characterised by photosensitivity, annular and/or psoriasiform lesions, variable systemic involvement and presence of circulating SSA/anti-Ro antibodies. SCLE may be idiopathic or drug-induced. Both the idiopathic and drug-induced forms of SCLE are analogous in their clinical, serological and histological features. Drug-induced SCLE has been reported with various oral agents, but to our knowledge this is the first reported case due to a topical medication. A 34-year-old female foot masseuse presented with a 2-month history of scaly, erythematous lesions isolated to the dorsal hands and interdigital spaces. She had used topical terbinafine, a topical antifungal cream, to her clients’ feet for a number of years. ANA and anti-SSA/Ro antibodies were positive. Physical examination, serology and histopathology were consistent with SCLE. We propose that our patient's unique presentation of SCLE may be explained by a prolonged occupational exposure to topical terbinafine as a foot masseuse. While oral terbinafine is a drug known to cause drug-induced SCLE, to our knowledge, this is the first topically induced form of the disease.

Trigger factors of cutaneous lupus erythematosus: a review of current literature

It is currently believed that autoimmune conditions are triggered and aggravated by a variety of environmental factors such as cigarette smoking, infections, ultraviolet light or chemicals, as well as certain medications and vaccines in genetically susceptible individuals. Recent scientific data have suggested a relevant role of these factors not only in systemic lupus erythematosus, but also in cutaneous lupus erythematosus (CLE). A variety of environmental factors have been proposed as initiators and exacerbators of this disease. In this review we focused on those with the most convincing evidence, emphasizing the role of drugs in CLE. Using a combined search strategy of the MEDLINE and CINAHL databases the following trigger factors and/or exacerbators of CLE have been identified and described: drugs, smoking, neoplasms, ultraviolet radiation and radiotherapy. In order to give a practical insight we emphasized the role of drugs from various groups and classes in CLE. We also aimed to present a short clinical profile of patients with lesions induced by various drug classes.

Drug-induced lupus: an update

Drug-induced lupus erythematosus (DILE) is a lupus-like illness that has been recognized as an entity under environmentally-induced lupus erythematosus, where other agents such as physical (ultra-violet irradiation), chemical (heavy metals, aromatic amines) and food products (alfalfa sprouts) have been implicated. DILE has been accepted as a side effect of therapy with over 80 drugs since its first description in association with sulfadiazine in 1945. The epidemiology and clinical course of SLE and DILE differ markedly and prognosis is generally favourable in the latter although occasional lifethreatening cases have been reported in the literature. Constant pharmacovigilance is crucial for prompt diagnosis and cessation of offending therapy offers the best outcome. This review discusses the clinical presentation, diagnosis of DILE as well as provides an update on postulated pathogenic mechanisms and an overview of implicated drugs.

Statins: immunomodulators for autoimmune rheumatic disease?

Inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylgluttaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, or statins, are used extensively to reduced elevated lipid levels and reduce cardiovascular risk. However, accumulated evidence suggests that stains not only act by lowering cholesterol levels, but also exert pleiotropic effects on many essential cellular functions including cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival and participate in the regulation of cell shape and motility. Thus cardiovascular benefit is provided by lowering raised cholesterol levels and by modulation of the inflammatory component of this disease. Such an anti-inflammatory effect may also benefit patients with autoimmune rheumatic disease. This overview assesses the evidence for using statins in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

Anti-thyroid drug-induced lupus: a case report and review of the literature

We report a case of drug-induced lupus (DIL) on a Chinese woman caused by methimazole (MMI). This report discusses DIL associated with MMI and briefly reviewed the literature concerning to anti-thyroid DIL.

Drug-induced subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus associated with docetaxel chemotherapy: a case report

BACKGROUND

Drug-induced subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus is an uncommon disorder associated with the use of pharmacological agents including systemic chemotherapy.

CASE PRESENTATION

We report a case of docetaxel-induced subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus in a 60-year-old Caucasian female with Sjögren's syndrome diagnosed 2 months after receiving docetaxel as part of the adjuvant FEC-D (5-fluorouracil, epirubicin, cyclophosphamide, docetaxel) chemotherapy protocol for early stage breast cancer. Although the exact mechanisms behind the autoimmune response elicited by docetaxel are unclear, the involvement of anti-SSA/Ro antibodies has been implicated.

CONCLUSION

This case highlights the symptom severity and clinical course of docetaxel-induced subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus, and highlights the importance of recognizing this uncommon but potentially severe chemotherapy-associated cutaneous reaction.

Drug-induced subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus associated with nab-paclitaxel therapy

Drug-induced lupus erythematosus (dile) syndromes are documented complications of chemotherapeutic agents, including paclitaxel. Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (scle) is a distinct dile syndrome presenting with characteristic annular or papulosquamous skin lesions in a photosensitive distribution with associated high anti-ssa titres. Previously, dile syndromes complicating paclitaxel therapy have been attributed to polyethoxylated castor oil (Kolliphor EL: BASF, Ludwigshafen, Germany), the biologic solvent included in the drug's original formulation (Taxol: Bristol-Myers Squibb, Montreal, QC), rather than the parent chemotherapy molecule. Here, we report a characteristic case of drug-induced scle complicating treatment with nanoparticle albumin bound (nab)-paclitaxel (Abraxane: Celgene, Summit, NJ, U.S.A.), a solvent-free taxane formulation. The pertinent English-language literature is also discussed. This case report is the first to link solvent-free paclitaxel with scle, and it suggests that the parent molecule is responsible for the reaction.

Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus and its association with drugs: a population-based matched case-control study of 234 patients in Sweden

BACKGROUND

Numerous case reports about drug-induced (DI) subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE) have been published. Various drug types with different latencies has been proposed as triggers for this autoimmune skin disease.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the association between exposure to certain suspected drugs (previously implicated to induce SCLE) and a subsequent diagnosis of SCLE.

METHODS

We performed a population-based matched case-control study in which all incident cases of SCLE (n=34) from 2006 to 2009 were derived from the National Patient Register. The control group was selected from the general population, matched (1:10) for gender, age and county of residence. The data were linked to the Prescribed Drug Register. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for the association between exposures to certain suspected drugs and the development of SCLE.

RESULTS

During the 6 months preceding SCLE diagnosis, 166 (71%) of the patients with SCLE had at least one filled prescription of the suspected drugs. The most increased ORs were found for terbinafine (OR 52.9, 95% CI 6.6-∞), tumour necrosis factor-α inhibitors (OR 8.0, 95% CI 1.6-37.2), antiepileptics (OR 3.4, 95% CI 1.9-5.8) and proton pump inhibitors (OR 2.9, 95% CI 2.0-4.0).

CONCLUSIONS

We found an association between drug exposure and SCLE. More than one third of the SCLE cases could be attributed to drug exposure. No significant OR was found for thiazides, which might be due to longer latency and therefore missed with this study design. DI-SCLE is reversible once the drug is discontinued, indicating the importance of screening patients with SCLE for potentially triggering drugs. A causal relationship cannot be established from this study and the underlying pathogenesis remains unclear.

Methimazole-induced bullous systemic lupus erythematosus: a case report

Bullous systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a kind of LE-non-specific bullous skin disease that is rarely induced by a medication. We describe the first case of bullous SLE to develop after administration of methimazole. A 31-yr-old woman presented with generalized erythematous patches, multiple bullae, arthralgia, fever, conjunctivitis, and hemolytic anemia. Biopsy of her bulla showed linear deposition of lgG, lgA, C3, fibrinogen, and C1q at dermo-epidermal junction. She was diagnosed as bullous SLE and treated with prednisolone, dapsone, hydroxychloroquine, and methotrexate. Our experience suggests that SLE should be considered as a differential diagnosis when bullous skin lesions develop in patients being treated for hyperthyroidism.

The last word on the so-called 'Rowell's syndrome'?

To date, 71 patients having the so-called 'Rowell's syndrome' (RS) have been reported in the literature. However, most of them did not show all the clinical and serological features first described by Rowell and co-workers in 1963. Moreover, since then, subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE) has been identified and the diagnostic criteria as well as the clinical features of erythema multiforme (EM) defined. Accordingly several authors have questioned the existence of RS over the past years. In the present paper, the main clinical, histopathological and immunopathological features of both SCLE and EM are described and all of the cases of RS reported in the literature are also reviewed in depth. A real association between discoid LE and EM was present only in a minority of cases and could be considered a mere coincidence. As for other associations, e.g. those between CLE and lichen planus or psoriasis, the coexistence of CLE and EM does not justify the framing of a separate syndrome as suggested by Rowell et al.

Drug-induced lupus erythematosus: incidence, management and prevention

The generation of autoantibodies and autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus has been associated with the use of certain drugs in humans. Early reports suggested that procainamide and hydralazine were associated with the highest risk of developing lupus, quinidine with a moderate risk and all other drugs were considered low or very low risk. More recently, drug-induced lupus has been associated with the use of the newer biological modulators such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α inhibitors and interferons. The clinical features and laboratory findings of TNFα inhibitor-induced lupus are different from that of traditional drug-induced lupus or idiopathic lupus, and standardized criteria for the diagnosis of drug-induced lupus have not been established. The mechanism(s) responsible for the development of drug-induced lupus may vary depending on the drug or even on the patient. Besides lupus, other autoimmune diseases have been associated with drugs or toxins. Diagnosis of drug-induced lupus requires identification of a temporal relationship between drug administration and symptom development, and in traditional drug-induced lupus there must be no pre-existing lupus. Resolution of symptoms generally occurs after cessation of the drug. In this review, we will discuss those drugs that are more commonly associated with drug-induced lupus, with an emphasis on the new biologicals and the difficulty of making the diagnosis of drug-induced lupus against a backdrop of the autoimmune diseases that these drugs are used to treat. Stimulation of the immune system by these drugs to cause autoimmunity may in fact be associated with an increased effectiveness in treating the pathology for which they are prescribed, leading to the dilemma of deciding which is worse, the original disease or the adverse effect of the drug. Optimistically, one must hope that ongoing research in drug development and in pharmacogenetics will help to treat patients with the maximum effectiveness while minimizing side effects. Vigilance and early diagnosis are critical. The purpose of this review is to summarize the most recent developments in our understanding of the incidence, pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of drug-induced lupus.

A systematic review of drug-induced subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus

The initial appearance of subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE) skin lesions in conjunction with Ro/SS-A autoantibodies occurring as an adverse reaction to hydrochlorothiazide [i.e. drug-induced SCLE (DI-SCLE)] was first reported in 1985. Over the past decade an increasing number of drugs in different classes has been implicated as triggers for DI-SCLE. The management of DI-SCLE can be especially challenging in patients taking multiple medications capable of triggering DI-SCLE. Our objectives were to review the published English language literature on DI-SCLE and use the resulting summary data pool to address questions surrounding drug-induced SCLE and to develop guidelines that might be of value to clinicians in the diagnosis and management of DI-SCLE. A systematic review of the Medline/PubMed-cited literature on DI-SCLE up to August 2009 was performed. Our data collection and analysis strategies were prospectively designed to answer a series of questions related to the clinical, prognostic and pathogenetic significance of DI-SCLE. One hundred and seventeen cases of DI-SCLE were identified and reviewed. White women made up the large majority of cases, and the mean overall age was 58·0 years. Triggering drugs fell into a number of different classes, highlighted by antihypertensives and antifungals. Time intervals ('incubation period') between drug exposure and appearance of DI-SCLE varied greatly and were drug class dependent. Most cases of DI-SCLE spontaneously resolved within weeks of drug withdrawal. Ro/SS-A autoantibodies were present in 80% of the cases in which such data were reported and most remained positive after resolution of SCLE skin disease activity. No significant differences in the clinical, histopathological or immunopathological features between DI-SCLE and idiopathic SCLE were detected. There is now adequate published experience to suggest that DI-SCLE does not differ clinically, histopathologically or immunologically from idiopathic SCLE. It should be recognized as a distinct clinical constellation differing clinically and immunologically from the classical form of drug-induced systemic lupus erythematosus.

Statins in dermatology

Statins are competitive inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylyglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase and reduce low-density lipoprotein-C levels. Statins are well-tolerated drugs used for prevention of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular events. Statins possess anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, metabolic, and possible anticancer effects. Statins are reported to be effective against psoriasis, dermatitis, graft-versus-host disease, uremic pruritus, vitiligo, and hirsutism. Topical forms of statins are employed in the treatment of acne, seborrhea, rosacea, and rhinophyma. Animal studies show the beneficial effect of statins against contact dermatitis and wound healing. They have promising anti-HIV effects as well. This article succinctly reviews the various cellular and molecular effects of statins, their applications in cutaneous medicine and their side effects.

Drug allergy: an updated practice parameter

Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) result in major health problems in the United States in both the inpatient and outpatient setting. ADRs are broadly categorized into predictable (type A and unpredictable (type B) reactions. Predictable reactions are usually dose dependent, are related to the known pharmacologic actions of the drug, and occur in otherwise healthy individuals, They are estimated to comprise approximately 80% of all ADRs. Unpredictable are generally dose independent, are unrelated to the pharmacologic actions of the drug, and occur only in susceptible individuals. Unpredictable reactions are subdivided into drug intolerance, drug idiosyncrasy, drug allergy, and pseudoallergic reactions. Both type A and B reactions may be influenced by genetic predisposition of the patient

Influence of atorvastatin on coronary calcifications and myocardial perfusion defects in systemic lupus erythematosus patients: a prospective, randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled study

Introduction

Mortality in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients is influenced by an increased occurrence of severe cardiovascular complications. Statins have been proven to protect a wide spectrum of SLE patients from these complications. This study was conducted to determine the possible efficacy of atorvastatin in SLE patients as assessed by multi-detector computed tomography (MDCT)-based coronary calcium scoring and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) of the myocardium.

Methods

Sixty SLE patients in stable clinical conditions were randomized to receive either atorvastatin (40 mg daily; n = 28) or placebo (n = 32). Clinical and biochemical evaluation together with MDCT-based coronary calcium scoring and SPECT studies (Tc-99 m sestamibi) were performed at the time of randomization and after 1 year of treatment.

Results

At randomization, SPECT revealed perfusion defects at rest in 22 (36.7%) patients and exercise-induced defects in 8 (13.3%), whereas MDCT revealed coronary calcifications in 15 subjects (25%). Coronary calcium deposits increased after 1 year in the placebo group (plaque volume change from 35.2 ± 44.9 to 62.9 ± 72.4, P < 0.05; calcium score from 32.1 ± 39.1 to 59.5 ± 64.4; P < 0.05), but not in the atorvastatin group (plaque volume 54.5 ± 62.4 vs. 51.0 ± 47.6, P not significant; calcium score 44.8 ± 50.6 vs. 54.9 ± 62.5, P not significant). The atorvastatin group showed a decrease in total serum cholesterol (from 5.1 ± 1.2 to 4.4 ± 0.7 mmol/L, P < 0.05), LDL cholesterol (2.9 ± 1.0 to 2.3 ± 0.6 mmol/L, P < 0.05), triglycerides (1.6 ± 0.6 to 1.2 ± 0.5 mmol/L, P < 0.05), and C-reactive protein (CRP) (4.4 ± 4.1 to 2.7 ± 1.7 mg/L, P < 0.05). There was no change in the mean Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI) score in patients from both groups. Perfusion defects observed at randomization showed no change after one year treatment with atorvastatin.

Conclusions

In SLE patients 40 mg of atorvastatin daily for 1 year led to a decrease in serum lipids and CRP levels. Additionally the progression of atherosclerosis, as assessed by MDCT-based coronary calcium scoring, is restrained by atorvastatin treatment. The value of statin treatment in patients with SLE free from cardiovascular disease clinical symptoms should be addressed in large, prospective clinical trials.

ANCA-positive vasculitis associated with simvastatin/ezetimibe: expanding the spectrum of statin-induced autoimmunity?

Although autoimmune syndromes such as systemic lupus erythematosus and dermatomyositis have been previously reported in association with statin use, vasculitis has not been well described. We present a patient with an antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-positive, predominantly cutaneous vasculitis, the temporal course of which was associated with simvastatin/ezetimibe use. The patient's serologic findings were consistent with drug-induced disease, with high titer antimyeloperoxidase, in addition to antinuclear and anti-Ro (SSA) antibodies. The patient demonstrated complete resolution of symptoms simply by withdrawing the drug.

Drug-induced subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus

Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE) is a subset of cutaneous lupus erythematosus with unique immunologic and clinical features. The first description dates back to 1985 when a series of five patients were found to have hydrochlorothiazide-induced SCLE. Since that time, at least 40 other drugs have been implicated in the induction of SCLE.