Late onset of Wilson's disease. Report of a family

Nosology and Phenomenology of Psychosis in Movement Disorders

BACKGROUND

Psychotic symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, are part of the clinical picture of several conditions presenting movement disorders. Phenomenology and epidemiology of psychosis in Parkinson's disease have received wide attention; however, the presence of psychosis in other movement disorders is, comparatively, less well known.

OBJECTIVES

To review psychotic symptoms present in different movement disorders.

METHODS

A comprehensive and structured literature search was performed to identify and analyze data on patients with movement disorders and comorbid psychosis.

RESULTS

In monogenic parkinsonisms, such as PARK-GBA, PARK-LRRK2, and PARK-SNCA, visual hallucinations related to dopamine replacement therapy are frequent as well as are delusions in PARK-LRRK2 and PARK-SNCA, but not in PARK-GBA. Different types of delusions and hallucinations are found in Huntington's disease and other choreic disorders. In Tourette's syndrome, paranoid delusions as well as visual, olfactory, and auditory hallucinations have been described, which usually develop after an average of 10 years of disease. Delusions in ataxias are more frequent in ATX-TBP, ATX-ATN1, and ATX-ATXN3, whereas it is rare in Friedreich's ataxia. Psychosis is also a prominent and frequent clinical feature in Fahr's disease, Wilson's disease, neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation, and some lysosomal storage disorders, whereas it is uncommon in atypical parkinsonisms and dystonia. Psychosis usually occurs at late disease stages, but may appear as onset symptoms of the disease, especially in Wilson's disease, Huntington's disease, late-onset Tays-Sachs, and Niemann-Pick.

CONCLUSION

Psychosis is a frequent comorbidity in most hyper- and hypokinetic movement disorders. Appropriate recognition is relevant both in the early and late disease stages.

Challenges in the diagnosis of Wilson disease

The understanding and management of Wilson disease (WD) have dramatically improved since the first description of the disease by K. Wilson more than a century ago. However, the persistent long delay between the first symptoms and diagnosis emphasizes challenges in diagnosing earlier this copper overload disorder. As a treatable disease, WD should be detected early in the course of the disease by any health professionals at any care level, but the rare prevalence of the disease explains the lack of awareness of referring physicians. The most important challenge is to train physicians to recognize atypical or rare symptoms of WD that will lead to discuss the diagnosis more systematically. Atypia can come from the age of onset, the liver [non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) presentation], the central or peripheral nervous system (neuropathy, epilepsy, sleep disorders…) or may be due to lesions of other organs (renal manifestations, osteo-articular disorders or endocrine disturbances). Isolated biological anomalies, rare radiological findings or inadequate interpretation of copper test may also lead to misdiagnosis. The second challenge is to confirm the diagnosis faster and more effectively so as not to delay the initiation of treatment, and expand family screening as the genetic prevalence is higher than previously expected. Generalization of the exchangeable copper assay and the next generation sequencing (NGS) are two promising ways to overcome this ultimate challenge. By drawing attention to the earliest and rare symptoms and to new biomarkers and diagnostic tools, we hope that this article will increase diagnostic awareness and reduce delays so that patients can start their treatment earlier in the course of the illness and thus have a better disease prognosis.

Epidemiology and introduction to the clinical presentation of Wilson disease

Our understanding of the epidemiology of Wilson disease has steadily grown since Sternlieb and Scheinberg's first prevalence estimate of 5 per million individuals in 1968. Increasingly sophisticated genetic techniques have led to revised genetic prevalence estimates of 142 per million. Various population isolates exist where the prevalence of Wilson disease is higher still, the highest being 885 per million from within the mountainous region of Rucar in Romania. In Sardinia, where the prevalence of Wilson disease has been calculated at 370 per million births, six mutations account for around 85% of Wilson disease chromosomes identified. Significant variation in the patterns of presentation may however exist, even between individuals carrying the same mutations. At either extremes of presentation are an 8-month-old infant with abnormal liver function tests and individuals diagnosed in their eighth decade of life. Three main patterns of presentation have been recognized - hepatic, neurologic, and psychiatric - prompting their presentation to a diverse range of specialists. Deviations in the family history from the anticipated autosomal-recessive mode of inheritance, with apparent "pseudodominance" and mechanisms of inheritance that include uniparental isodisomy (the inheritance of both chromosomal copies from a single parent), may all further cloud the diagnosis. It can therefore take the efforts of an astute clinician with a high clinical index of suspicion to clinch the diagnosis of this eminently treatable condition.

Low-copper diet as a preventive strategy for Alzheimer's disease

Copper is an essential element, and either a copper deficiency or excess can be life threatening. Recent studies have indicated that alteration of copper metabolism is one of the pathogenetic mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In light of these findings, many researchers have proposed preventive strategies to reduce AD risk. Because the general population comes in contact with copper mainly through dietary intake, that is, food 75% and drinking water 25%, a low-copper diet can reduce the risk of AD in individuals with an altered copper metabolism. We suggest that a diet-gene interplay is at the basis of the "copper phenotype" of sporadic AD. Herein, we describe the pathways regulating copper homeostasis, the adverse sequelae related to its derangements, the pathogenic mechanism of the AD copper phenotype, indications for a low-copper diet, and future perspectives to improve this preventive strategy.

Diagnosis of Wilson's disease: a comprehensive review

Wilson's disease is an autosomal recessive disorder of copper metabolism. The culprit gene is ATP7B. The worldwide prevalence is about 1 in 30,000, which may vary by population. Higher prevalence rates were reported using more sensitive screening techniques and pilot population screening. Typical presentations include neuropsychiatric and hepatic dysfunction, whereas atypical presentations are protean. Diagnosis relies on a high clinical suspicion, typical neurological symptoms, presence of Kayser-Fleischer rings, and reduced serum ceruloplasmin concentration. The conventional value of < 0.20 g/l is not a universal diagnostic value. Age of the subjects and analytical variations should be considered when interpreting these levels. Patients with inconclusive findings require further investigations such as 24 h urinary free-copper excretion, penicillamine challenge test, liver copper measurement, and detection of gene mutations. Direct molecular diagnosis remains the most decisive tool. Other tests such as non-ceruloplasmin-bound copper are unreliable. Potential pitfalls and limitations of these diagnostic markers are critically reviewed in this paper. The mainstays of therapy are trientine, penicillamine, and/or zinc. Liver transplantation is lifesaving for those with advanced disease. Ceruloplasmin oxidase activity and serum free-copper concentration should be monitored in patients on long-term de-coppering therapy to prevent iatrogenic copper deficiency.

Late onset Wilson's disease: therapeutic implications

The clinical symptoms of Wilson's disease (WD) usually develop between 3 and 40 years of age and include signs of liver and/or neurologic and psychiatric disease. We report on an 84-year-old woman with WD. Despite the absence of treatment, the only symptom she presented with, until the age of 74 years, was Kayser-Fleisher rings. At the age of 74, she developed slightly abnormal liver function. This case raises the following issues: (a) Should WD be considered in all patients of all ages who manifest signs related to the disease? (b) Are ATP7B mutations fully penetrant? (c) Should all patients diagnosed presymptomatically receive anticopper therapy?

Late-onset Wilson's disease

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The clinical symptoms and age at onset of Wilson's disease (WD) are highly variable. This study investigated patients who became symptomatic at >40 years of age.

METHODS

Clinical features, laboratory data, and mutation analysis were evaluated in 46 (3.8%) of 1223 patients who were investigated in a multinational study on genotype-phenotype correlations (1053 index patients, 170 siblings) who were >40 years of age at onset of symptoms and, in 2 asymptomatic siblings, diagnosed at >40 years of age.

RESULTS

Thirty-one patients presented with neurologic symptoms (mean age, 44.5 years; range, 40-52; male/female, 14/17), 15 presented with liver disease (mean age, 47.1 years; range, 40-58; male/female, 6/9), and 2 were asymptomatic siblings. Hepatic copper content was measured in 17 patients and was above 250 microg/g dry weight in 13. One patient with hepatic presentation had "fulminant" WD, the remaining 14 abnormal liver function tests and/or hepatomegaly. Liver biopsy specimens were available in 13 patients presenting with liver disease (cirrhosis, 10; chronic hepatitis, 2; steatosis, 1; no abnormalities, 1) and in 14 neurologic patients (cirrhosis, 9; advanced fibrosis, 1; chronic hepatitis, 2; no abnormalities, 2). Twenty-seven of the 46 index cases had mutations on both chromosomes (including 13 H1069Q/H1069Q), 13 on just 1 chromosome.

CONCLUSIONS

Late-onset WD is a frequently overlooked condition. The diagnostic features and the frequency of late-onset WD gene mutations were not different than in patients with an earlier onset of disease. Factors other than ATP7B mutations may modify the phenotypic presentation of WD.

Wilson disease: description of 282 patients evaluated over 3 decades

The clinical manifestations of Wilson disease (WD) are varied and challenging. We conducted the current study to present the phenotypic characteristics and follow-up for a large cohort of patients with WD. We reviewed the medical records of 282 cases of WD (male:female ratio, 196:86) for clinical features, investigations, treatment, and outcome data. The clinical presentations were as follows: hepatic, 42 (14.9%); hepato-neurologic, 10 (3.5%); neurologic, 195 (69.1%); pure psychiatric, 7 (2.4%); osseomuscular, 6 (2.1%); and "presymptomatic," 15 (5.3%). Mean age was 15.9 years. Presymptomatic patients and those with the hepatic form of WD were younger and patients with osseomuscular and psychiatric forms were older than neurologic patients. The mean duration of illness at the time of diagnosis was 28 months. Predominant neurologic features were as follows: parkinsonism, 62.3%; dystonia, 35.4%; cerebellar, 28%; pyramidal signs, 16%; chorea, 9%; athetosis, 2.2%; myoclonus, 3.4%; and behavioral abnormalities, 16%. Kayser-Fleischer (KF) rings were seen as follows: neurologic patients, 100%; hepatic patients, 86%; and presymptomatic patients, 59%. Positive family history was noted in 47% and consanguinity in 54%. Patients born of consanguineous parents had an earlier age of onset and shorter duration of illness before presentation. Serum ceruloplasmin was decreased in 93% and 24-hour urinary copper excretion was increased in 70% of patients. Neuroimaging (computed tomography/magnetic resonance imaging) and electrophysiologic abnormalities were seen in many patients. Overall, 195 patients were on D-penicillamine therapy and 182 on zinc sulphate. Follow-up data, available for 225 patients, for a mean duration of 46 months, revealed improvement in 176, no change in 20, and deterioration in 6. Twenty-three patients died. To conclude, despite increased awareness and recognition and significant inroads into therapeutic frontiers, follow-up remains poor in developing countries and a return to previous level of functioning is not universal.

Late onset of Wilson's disease in a family with genetic haemochromatosis

We report the coexistence of Wilson's disease and genetic haemochromatosis in one family. The diagnosis of genetic haemochromatosis was established in a 52-year-old man. Among his siblings, one 57-year-old sister and one 55-year-old brother had decreased copper and ceruloplasmin levels in serum and increased urinary copper excretion. The sister shared the same human leucocyte antigen haplotypes and was homozygous for the HFE mutation C282Y, like the propositus. However, she had normal liver iron content and increased liver copper content. Her dietary copper intake was probably excessive. The association of Wilson's disease and genetic haemochromatosis is rare and has only been described twice. The onset of Wilson's disease after 50 years of age is rare; Wilson's disease should be considered in any patient with unexplained chronic liver disease; an excess in liver copper content might be induced by excessive dietary input in a susceptible individual.

Wilson disease

Wilson disease (WD) is an autosomal recessive disorder of copper metabolism. Since daily copper intake exceeds the body's requirements, effective means of excreting excess copper are essential. These are accomplished by ATP7B, a new member of the cation-transporting p-type ATPase family, which is mainly expressed in the liver and mediates both copper secretion into plasma (coupled with ceruloplasmin synthesis) and its excretion into bile. Thus far, more than 200 mutations of the WD gene have been detected, causing impairment of ATP7B function and, ultimately, copper accumulation. Excess copper, however, induces free-radical reactions and lipid peroxidation. Resultant liver damage leads to steatosis, inflammation, cirrhosis, and, occasionally, fulminant liver failure. The diagnosis of WD is commonly made on the basis of typical clinical and laboratory findings, including low serum ceruloplasmin, increased urinary copper excretion, and increased hepatic copper content. Since liver morphology is non-specific, and copper histochemistry may lead to both false-negative and false-positive results, the pathologist usually only suspects the disease or assists in its confirmation. Although the value of molecular genetic testing is limited due to the high number of possible gene mutations, polymerase chain reaction may be useful for the evaluation of family members of homozygous index patients.

Wilson's disease. Update of a systemic disorder with protean manifestations

In Wilson's disease, a genetic defect in a copper transporter causes defective incorporation of copper into apo-ceruloplasmin and the failure to excrete copper into bile. Copper accumulated in hepatocytes generates damage via reactive oxygen species. Release of copper from necrotic hepatocytes leads to damage of other tissues, including the brain, urinary tract, red blood cells, heart, endocrine glands, skin, pancreas, bones, and joints. Treatment is designed to chelate the excess copper for urinary excretion, prevent copper absorption, and render tissue copper nontoxic. Liver transplantation, with replacement of the defective hepatic gene, may be necessary in some cases.

Late diagnosis of Wilson's disease in a case without onset of symptoms

Wilson's disease (WD) was diagnosed on the basis of a liver biopsy, blood investigations and a radio copper test in a 60-year-old, neurologically normal female with uncharacteristic gastrointestinal complaints. Since this patient never developed symptoms indicative for WD this case suggests the possibility of a subclinical course of untreated WD.

Psychiatric aspects of Wilson's disease

A variety of psychiatric symptoms have been described in relation to Wilson's disease, an inherited disorder of copper metabolism. At least four symptom clusters can be identified: affective, behavioural/personality, schizophrenia-like, and cognitive; the first two groups appear to be the commonest. Four cases (three newly reported) are described, and current approaches to the psychiatric management of Wilson's disease discussed.

Westphal-Strümpell disease: a case report with a new method of urinary copper evaluation

A case of Westphal-Strümpell disease diagnosed by classical serum and urinary investigations is described. The efficacy of specific treatment was monitored by the values of urinary copper excretion, determined by a new quantitative chemical method, which is described in detail.