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Zi F, Li Z, Cheng W, Huang X, Sheng X, Rong W. Novel mutations of the X-linked genes associated with early-onset high myopia in five Chinese families. BMC Med Genomics 2023; 16:223. [PMID: 37749571 PMCID: PMC10521526 DOI: 10.1186/s12920-023-01665-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To report novel pathogenic variants of X-linked genes in five Chinese families with early-onset high myopia (eoHM) by using whole-exome sequencing and analyzing the phenotypic features. METHODS 5 probands with X-linked recessive related eoHM were collected in Ningxia Eye Hospital from January 2021 to June 2022. The probands and their family members received comprehensive ophthalmic examinations,and DNA was abstracted from patients and family members. Whole-exome sequencing was performed on probands to screen the causative variants, and all suspected pathogenic variants were determined by Sanger sequencing and co-segregation analysis was performed on available family members. The pathogenicity of novel variants was predicted using silico analysis and evaluated according to ACMG guidelines. RT-qPCR was used to detect differences in the relative mRNAs expression of candidate gene in mRNAs available with the proband and family members in the pedigree 2. The relationship between genetic variants and clinical features was analyzed. RESULTS All probands were male, and all pedigrees conformed to an X-linked recessive inheritance pattern. They were diagnosed with high myopia at their first visits between 4 and 7 years old. Spherical equivalent ranged between - 6.00D and - 11.00D.The five novel hemizygous variants were found in the probands, containing frameshift deletion variant c.797_801del (p.Val266Alafs*75) of OPN1LW gene in the pedigree 1, nonsense variant c.513G > A (p.Trp171Ter)of RP2 gene in the pedigree 2, missense variant c.98G > T (p.Cys33Phe) of GPR143 gene in the pedigree 3, frameshift deletion variant c.1876_1877del (p.Met626Valfs*22) of FRMD7 gene in the pedigree 4 and inframe deletion variant c.670_ 675del (p.Glu192_ Glu193del) of HMGB3 gene in the pedigree 5. All variants were classified as pathogenic or likely pathogenic by the interpretation principles of HGMD sequence variants and ACMG guidelines. In family 2, RT-qPCR showed that the mRNA expression of RP2 gene was lower in the proband than in other normal family members, indicating that such variant caused an effect on gene function at the mRNA expression level. Further clinical examination showed that pedigrees 1, 2, 3, and 4 were diagnosed as X-linked recessive hereditary eye disease with early-onset high myopia, including quiescent cone dysfunction, retinitis pigmentosa, ocular albinism, and idiopathic congenital nystagmus respectively. The pedigree 5 had eoHM in the right eye and ptosis in both eyes. CONCLUSION In this paper,we are the first to report five novel hemizygous variants in OPN1LW, RP2, GPR143, FRMD7, HMGB3 genes are associated with eoHM. Our study extends the genotypic spectrums for eoHM and better assists ophthalmologists in assessing, diagnosing, and conducting genetic screening for eoHM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feiyin Zi
- Clinical Medical College, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750001, China
| | - Zhen Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ningxia Eye Hospital, People's Hospital of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Third Clinical Medical College of Ningxia Medical University, 936 Huanghe East Road, Jinfeng District, Yinchuan, 750001, China
| | - Wanyu Cheng
- Clinical Medical College, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750001, China
| | - Xiaoyu Huang
- Clinical Medical College, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750001, China
| | - Xunlun Sheng
- Gansu Aier Ophthalmiology and Optometry Hospital, 1228 Guazhou Road, Qilihe District, Lanzhou, 730050, China.
| | - Weining Rong
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ningxia Eye Hospital, People's Hospital of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Third Clinical Medical College of Ningxia Medical University, 936 Huanghe East Road, Jinfeng District, Yinchuan, 750001, China.
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2
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Zhang K, Liu D, Zhao J, Shi S, He X, Da P, You Y, You B. Nuclear exosome HMGB3 secreted by nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells promotes tumour metastasis by inducing angiogenesis. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:554. [PMID: 34050127 PMCID: PMC8163785 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-021-03845-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Distant metastasis accompanied by angiogenesis is the main cause of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC)-related death. Nuclear exosomes (nEXOs) are potential tumour biomarkers. High mobility group box 3 (HMGB3), a nuclear protein, is known to be overexpressed in cancers. However, its role in NPC has not been elucidated. Here, we explore for the first time the function of nEXO HMGB3 in tumour angiogenesis involved in NPC metastasis using a series of in vitro experiments with NPC cell lines and clinical specimens and in vivo experiments with tumour xenograft zebrafish angiogenesis model. We found a high expression of HMGB3 in NPC, accompanied by the formation of micronuclei, to be associated with metastasis. Furthermore, the NPC-secreted HMGB3 expression was associated with tumour angiogenesis. Moreover, HMGB3-containing nEXOs, derived from the micronuclei of NPC cells, were ingested by the human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), and accelerated angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Importantly, western blotting and flow cytometry analysis showed that circulating nEXO HMGB3 positively correlated with NPC metastasis. In summary, nEXO HMGB3 can be a significant biomarker of NPC metastasis and provide a novel basis for anti-angiogenesis therapy in clinical metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiwen Zhang
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Xisi Road 20, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China.,Institute of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Xisi Road 20, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Dong Liu
- School of Life Science, Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Jianmei Zhao
- Molecular Detection Center, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Xisi Road 20, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Si Shi
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Xisi Road 20, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China.,Institute of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Xisi Road 20, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xin He
- Department of Pathology, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Xisi Road 20, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Peng Da
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Xisi Road 20, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China.,Institute of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Xisi Road 20, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yiwen You
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Xisi Road 20, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China. .,Institute of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Xisi Road 20, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Bo You
- Department of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Xisi Road 20, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China. .,Institute of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Xisi Road 20, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu Province, China.
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3
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Gómez-González C, Rosas-Alonso R, Rodríguez-Antolín C, García-Guede A, Ibáñez de Caceres I, Sanguino J, Pascual SI, Esteban I, Pozo AD, Mori MÁ, Torres RJ, Prior C. Symptomatic heterozygous X-Linked myotubular myopathy female patient with a large deletion at Xq28 and decrease expression of normal allele. Eur J Med Genet 2021; 64:104170. [PMID: 33618039 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmg.2021.104170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
X-linked myotubular myopathy (XLMTM; OMIM 310400) is a centronuclear congenital muscular disorder of X-linked recessive inheritance. Although female carriers are typically asymptomatic, affected heterozygous females have been described. Here, we describe the case of a sporadic female patient with suspicion of centronuclear myopathy and a heterozygous large deletion at Xq28 encompassing the MAMLD1, MTM1, MTMR1, CD99L2, and HMGB3 genes. The deletion was first detected using a custom next generation sequencing (NGS)-based multigene panel and finally characterized by comparative genomic hybridization array and multiplex ligation probe assay techniques. In this patient we have confirmed, by MTM1 mRNA quantification, a MTM1 gene expression less than the expected 50 percent in patient muscle. The significant 20% reduction in MTM1 mRNA expression in muscle, precludes low level of the normal myotubularin protein as the cause of the phenotype in this heterozygous female. We have also found that BIN1 expression in patient muscle biopsy was significantly increased, and postulate that BIN1 expression will be increased in XLMTM patient muscle as an attempt to maintain muscle function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rocío Rosas-Alonso
- Cancer Epigenetics Laboratory, INGEMM, La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain; Biomarkers and Experimental Therapeutics in Cancer, IdiPaz, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Rodríguez-Antolín
- Cancer Epigenetics Laboratory, INGEMM, La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain; Biomarkers and Experimental Therapeutics in Cancer, IdiPaz, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alvaro García-Guede
- Cancer Epigenetics Laboratory, INGEMM, La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain; Biomarkers and Experimental Therapeutics in Cancer, IdiPaz, Madrid, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Ibáñez de Caceres
- Cancer Epigenetics Laboratory, INGEMM, La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain; Biomarkers and Experimental Therapeutics in Cancer, IdiPaz, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Sanguino
- Department of Genetics, INGEMM, La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
| | - Samuel I Pascual
- Department of Pediatric Neurology. La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
| | - Isabel Esteban
- Department of Anatomical Pathology. La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
| | - Angela Del Pozo
- Department of Bioinformatics, INGEMM, La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Ángeles Mori
- Department of Genetics, INGEMM, La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosa J Torres
- La Paz University Hospital Health Research Institute (FIBHULP), IdiPaz, Madrid, Spain; Center for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), ISCIII, Spain.
| | - Carmen Prior
- Department of Genetics, INGEMM, La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
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4
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Santhiya P, Christian Bharathi A, Syed Ibrahim B. The pathogenicity, structural and functional exploration of human HMGB1 single nucleotide polymorphisms using in silico study. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2020; 38:4471-4482. [PMID: 31625460 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2019.1682048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The human HMGB1 gene mutations have a major impact on several immune-related diseases and cancer. The detrimental effect of non-synonymous mutations of HMGB1 has not been investigated yet, hence the present study aims to examine single nucleotide polymorphisms and their implications on the structure-function of human HMGB1. The multifaceted HMGB1 protein acts as pleiotropic cytokine and regulates essential genes for coordinated cellular functions. The mutational effect on HMGB1 was analyzed by sequence-based homology methods, supervised learning methods, and structure-based methods. The study identified 58 non-synonymous mutations in human HMGB1, out of which only 2 mutations; R10T (rs61742222) and F103C (rs61733675) were classified as the SNPs with highest deleterious and disease-causing mutants. The effect of these mutations in structure of HMGB1 was scrutinized and the R10T mutant found to have a distinct structural behaviour in the B-box domain. In addition, R10T mutant predicted that it affects the MoRF function of HMGB1 and it could disrupt the DNA binding or/and protein partner interaction activity by HMGB1. F103C mutation takes place at the TLR binding and cytokine inducing region of HMGB1, hence it could affect the protein binding activity which involves in many cellular signaling. The study identified potent mutations R10T (a cancer-causing somatic mutation) and F103C (a novel mutation) and these mutations either directly or indirectly hinder DNA binding activity and TLR and cytokine binding of HMGB1. These findings will help in understanding the molecular basis of these promising mutations and functional role of human HMGB1 in cancer and immunological diseases.AbbreviationsAGERAdvanced glycosylation end product-specific receptorCXCLChemokine (C-X-C motif) liganddbSNPThe single nucleotide polymorphism databaseHMGB1High mobility group box 1LINCSLINear Constraint SolverMDSMolecular dynamics simulationMoRFMolecular recognition featuresNPTNumber of particle, Pressure and TemperatureNVTNumber of particle, Volume and TemperaturensSNPNon-synonymous SNPPBCPartial boundary conditionPCAPrincipal component analysisPMEPartial mesh EwaldRMSDRoot mean square deviationRMSFRoot mean square fluctuationSNPSingle nucleotide polymorphismSPCSingle-point chargeTLRToll-like receptorUTRUn-translated RegionCommunicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Santhiya
- Centre for Bioinformatics, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India
| | | | - B Syed Ibrahim
- Centre for Bioinformatics, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India
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5
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George A, Cogliati T, Brooks BP. Genetics of syndromic ocular coloboma: CHARGE and COACH syndromes. Exp Eye Res 2020; 193:107940. [PMID: 32032630 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2020.107940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Optic fissure closure defects result in uveal coloboma, a potentially blinding condition affecting between 0.5 and 2.6 per 10,000 births that may cause up to 10% of childhood blindness. Uveal coloboma is on a phenotypic continuum with microphthalmia (small eye) and anophthalmia (primordial/no ocular tissue), the so-called MAC spectrum. This review gives a brief overview of the developmental biology behind coloboma and its clinical presentation/spectrum. Special attention will be given to two prominent, syndromic forms of coloboma, namely, CHARGE (Coloboma, Heart defect, Atresia choanae, Retarded growth and development, Genital hypoplasia, and Ear anomalies/deafness) and COACH (Cerebellar vermis hypoplasia, Oligophrenia, Ataxia, Coloboma, and Hepatic fibrosis) syndromes. Approaches employed to identify genes involved in optic fissure closure in animal models and recent advances in live imaging of zebrafish eye development are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aman George
- Ophthalmic Genetics and Visual Function Branch, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health. Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA
| | - Tiziana Cogliati
- Ophthalmic Genetics and Visual Function Branch, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health. Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA
| | - Brian P Brooks
- Ophthalmic Genetics and Visual Function Branch, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health. Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA.
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6
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Harding P, Moosajee M. The Molecular Basis of Human Anophthalmia and Microphthalmia. J Dev Biol 2019; 7:jdb7030016. [PMID: 31416264 PMCID: PMC6787759 DOI: 10.3390/jdb7030016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Human eye development is coordinated through an extensive network of genetic signalling pathways. Disruption of key regulatory genes in the early stages of eye development can result in aborted eye formation, resulting in an absent eye (anophthalmia) or a small underdeveloped eye (microphthalmia) phenotype. Anophthalmia and microphthalmia (AM) are part of the same clinical spectrum and have high genetic heterogeneity, with >90 identified associated genes. By understanding the roles of these genes in development, including their temporal expression, the phenotypic variation associated with AM can be better understood, improving diagnosis and management. This review describes the genetic and structural basis of eye development, focusing on the function of key genes known to be associated with AM. In addition, we highlight some promising avenues of research involving multiomic approaches and disease modelling with induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology, which will aid in developing novel therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariya Moosajee
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London EC1V 9EL, UK.
- Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London EC1V 2PD, UK.
- Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, London WC1N 3JH, UK.
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7
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Johnston JJ, Williamson KA, Chou CM, Sapp JC, Ansari M, Chapman HM, Cooper DN, Dabir T, Dudley JN, Holt RJ, Ragge NK, Schäffer AA, Sen SK, Slavotinek AM, FitzPatrick DR, Glaser TM, Stewart F, Black GC, Biesecker LG. NAA10 polyadenylation signal variants cause syndromic microphthalmia. J Med Genet 2019; 56:444-452. [PMID: 30842225 DOI: 10.1136/jmedgenet-2018-105836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A single variant in NAA10 (c.471+2T>A), the gene encoding N-acetyltransferase 10, has been associated with Lenz microphthalmia syndrome. In this study, we aimed to identify causative variants in families with syndromic X-linked microphthalmia. METHODS Three families, including 15 affected individuals with syndromic X-linked microphthalmia, underwent analyses including linkage analysis, exome sequencing and targeted gene sequencing. The consequences of two identified variants in NAA10 were evaluated using quantitative PCR and RNAseq. RESULTS Genetic linkage analysis in family 1 supported a candidate region on Xq27-q28, which included NAA10. Exome sequencing identified a hemizygous NAA10 polyadenylation signal (PAS) variant, chrX:153,195,397T>C, c.*43A>G, which segregated with the disease. Targeted sequencing of affected males from families 2 and 3 identified distinct NAA10 PAS variants, chrX:g.153,195,401T>C, c.*39A>G and chrX:g.153,195,400T>C, c.*40A>G. All three variants were absent from gnomAD. Quantitative PCR and RNAseq showed reduced NAA10 mRNA levels and abnormal 3' UTRs in affected individuals. Targeted sequencing of NAA10 in 376 additional affected individuals failed to identify variants in the PAS. CONCLUSION These data show that PAS variants are the most common variant type in NAA10-associated syndromic microphthalmia, suggesting reduced RNA is the molecular mechanism by which these alterations cause microphthalmia/anophthalmia. We reviewed recognised variants in PAS associated with Mendelian disorders and identified only 23 others, indicating that NAA10 harbours more than 10% of all known PAS variants. We hypothesise that PAS in other genes harbour unrecognised pathogenic variants associated with Mendelian disorders. The systematic interrogation of PAS could improve genetic testing yields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer J Johnston
- National Institutes of Health, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Christopher M Chou
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.,Department of Emergency Medicine, The Permanente Medical Group (TPMG), Roseville/Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Julie C Sapp
- National Institutes of Health, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Morad Ansari
- MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,DNA Diagnostic Laboratory, South East Scotland Regional Genetics Services, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Heather M Chapman
- Department of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - David N Cooper
- Institute of Medical Genetics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Tabib Dabir
- Northern Ireland Regional Genetics Service (NIRGS), Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, UK
| | - Jeffrey N Dudley
- National Institutes of Health, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Richard J Holt
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
| | - Nicola K Ragge
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK.,West Midlands Regional Clinical Genetics Service and Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham Women's and Children's NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
| | - Alejandro A Schäffer
- Computational Biology Branch, National Center for Biotechnology Information, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.,Cancer Data Science Laboratory, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Shurjo K Sen
- Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc, Basic Science Program, Cancer & Inflammation, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Anne M Slavotinek
- Department of Pediatrics and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | | | - Thomas M Glaser
- Department of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Fiona Stewart
- Northern Ireland Regional Genetics Service (NIRGS), Belfast City Hospital, Belfast, UK
| | - Graeme Cm Black
- Division of Evolution and Genomic Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.,St Mary's Hospital, Manchester Centre for Genomic Medicine, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, UK
| | - Leslie G Biesecker
- National Institutes of Health, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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8
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Ragge N, Isidor B, Bitoun P, Odent S, Giurgea I, Cogné B, Deb W, Vincent M, Le Gall J, Morton J, Lim D, Le Meur G, Zazo Seco C, Zafeiropoulou D, Bax D, Zwijnenburg P, Arteche A, Swafiri ST, Cleaver R, McEntagart M, Kini U, Newman W, Ayuso C, Corton M, Herenger Y, Jeanne M, Calvas P, Chassaing N. Expanding the phenotype of the X-linked BCOR microphthalmia syndromes. Hum Genet 2018; 138:1051-1069. [PMID: 29974297 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-018-1896-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Two distinct syndromes arise from pathogenic variants in the X-linked gene BCOR (BCL-6 corepressor): oculofaciocardiodental (OFCD) syndrome, which affects females, and a severe microphthalmia ('Lenz'-type) syndrome affecting males. OFCD is an X-linked dominant syndrome caused by a variety of BCOR null mutations. As it manifests only in females, it is presumed to be lethal in males. The severe male X-linked recessive microphthalmia syndrome ('Lenz') usually includes developmental delay in addition to the eye findings and is caused by hypomorphic BCOR variants, mainly by a specific missense variant c.254C > T, p.(Pro85Leu). Here, we detail 16 new cases (11 females with 4 additional, genetically confirmed, affected female relatives; 5 male cases each with unaffected carrier mothers). We describe new variants and broaden the phenotypic description for OFCD to include neuropathy, muscle hypotonia, pituitary underdevelopment, brain atrophy, lipoma and the first description of childhood lymphoma in an OFCD case. Our male X-linked recessive cases show significant new phenotypes: developmental delay (without eye anomalies) in two affected half-brothers with a novel BCOR variant, and one male with high myopia, megalophthalmos, posterior embryotoxon, developmental delay, and heart and bony anomalies with a previously undescribed BCOR splice site variant. Our female OFCD cases and their affected female relatives showed variable features, but consistently had early onset cataracts. We show that a mosaic carrier mother manifested early cataract and dental anomalies. All female carriers of the male X-linked recessive cases for whom genetic confirmation was available showed skewed X-inactivation and were unaffected. In view of the extended phenotype, we suggest a new term of X-linked BCOR-related syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Ragge
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK. .,West Midlands Regional Clinical Genetics Service and Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham Women's and Children's Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK.
| | - Bertrand Isidor
- Service de génétique médicale, Hôtel-Dieu, CHU de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Pierre Bitoun
- SIDVA 91, Ophthalmic Genetics, 1 rue de la Cour de, 91260, Juvisy s/orge, France
| | - Sylvie Odent
- Service de Génétique Clinique, Centre de référence CLAD-Ouest, Université Rennes 1, UMR 6290 CNRS IGDR, CHU Rennes, Rennes, France
| | - Irina Giurgea
- U.F. de Génétique moléculaire, Hôpital Armand Trousseau, Assistance Publique, Hôpitaux de Paris, 75012, Paris, France.,Faculté de médecine, INSERM UMR S933, Sorbonne Université, 75012, Paris, France
| | - Benjamin Cogné
- Service de génétique médicale, Hôtel-Dieu, CHU de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Wallid Deb
- Service de génétique médicale, Hôtel-Dieu, CHU de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Marie Vincent
- Service de génétique médicale, Hôtel-Dieu, CHU de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Jessica Le Gall
- Service de génétique médicale, Hôtel-Dieu, CHU de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Jenny Morton
- West Midlands Regional Clinical Genetics Service and Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham Women's and Children's Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
| | - Derek Lim
- West Midlands Regional Clinical Genetics Service and Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham Women's and Children's Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
| | | | - Guylène Le Meur
- Service d'ophtalmologie, Hôtel Dieu, CHU de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Celia Zazo Seco
- UDEAR, UMR 1056 Inserm, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Dimitra Zafeiropoulou
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Centre, Geert Grooteplein 10, 6525 GA, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Dorine Bax
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
| | - Petra Zwijnenburg
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anara Arteche
- Department of Genetics, Health Research Institute-Jiménez Díaz Foundation, University Hospital (IIS-FJD-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Saoud Tahsin Swafiri
- Department of Genetics, Health Research Institute-Jiménez Díaz Foundation, University Hospital (IIS-FJD-UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ruth Cleaver
- South West Thames Regional Genetics Service, St. George's Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Meriel McEntagart
- South West Thames Regional Genetics Service, St. George's Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Usha Kini
- Oxford Centre for Genomic Medicine, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Carmen Ayuso
- Department of Genetics, Health Research Institute-Jiménez Díaz Foundation, University Hospital (IIS-FJD-UAM), Madrid, Spain.,Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), ISCIII, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta Corton
- Department of Genetics, Health Research Institute-Jiménez Díaz Foundation, University Hospital (IIS-FJD-UAM), Madrid, Spain.,Centre for Biomedical Network Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), ISCIII, Madrid, Spain
| | - Yvan Herenger
- Service de Génétique Médicale, CHU de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Médéric Jeanne
- Service de Génétique Médicale, CHU de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Patrick Calvas
- UDEAR, UMR 1056 Inserm, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France.,Department of Medical Genetics, CHU Toulouse, Purpan Hospital, 31059, Toulouse, France
| | - Nicolas Chassaing
- UDEAR, UMR 1056 Inserm, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France.,Department of Medical Genetics, CHU Toulouse, Purpan Hospital, 31059, Toulouse, France
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Wood EH, Drenser KA, Hariprasad SM. Genetic Testing for Retina Specialists. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina 2018; 49:292-295. [DOI: 10.3928/23258160-20180501-01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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10
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Neri G, Schwartz CE, Lubs HA, Stevenson RE. X-linked intellectual disability update 2017. Am J Med Genet A 2018; 176:1375-1388. [PMID: 29696803 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.38710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The X-chromosome comprises only about 5% of the human genome but accounts for about 15% of the genes currently known to be associated with intellectual disability. The early progress in identifying the X-linked intellectual disability (XLID)-associated genes through linkage analysis and candidate gene sequencing has been accelerated with the use of high-throughput technologies. In the 10 years since the last update, the number of genes associated with XLID has increased by 96% from 72 to 141 and duplications of all 141 XLID genes have been described, primarily through the application of high-resolution microarrays and next generation sequencing. The progress in identifying genetic and genomic alterations associated with XLID has not been matched with insights that improve the clinician's ability to form differential diagnoses, that bring into view the possibility of curative therapies for patients, or that inform scientists of the impact of the genetic alterations on cell organization and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Neri
- J.C. Self Research Institute of Human Genetics, Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina.,Istituto di Medicina Genomica, Università Cattolica del S. Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Charles E Schwartz
- J.C. Self Research Institute of Human Genetics, Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina
| | - Herbert A Lubs
- J.C. Self Research Institute of Human Genetics, Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina
| | - Roger E Stevenson
- J.C. Self Research Institute of Human Genetics, Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, South Carolina
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11
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Plaisancié J, Ragge N, Dollfus H, Kaplan J, Lehalle D, Francannet C, Morin G, Colineaux H, Calvas P, Chassaing N. FOXE3
mutations: genotype-phenotype correlations. Clin Genet 2018; 93:837-845. [DOI: 10.1111/cge.13177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2017] [Revised: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J. Plaisancié
- Service de Génétique Médicale, Hôpital Purpan, CHU Toulouse; Toulouse France
- INSERM U1056; Université Toulouse III; Toulouse France
| | - N.K. Ragge
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences; Oxford Brookes University; Oxford UK
- West Midlands Regional Genetics Service; Birmingham Women and Children’s NHS Foundation Trust; Birmingham UK
| | - H. Dollfus
- Centre de Référence pour les affections rares en génétique ophtalmologique; CARGO, Filière SENSGENE, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg; Strasbourg France
| | - J. Kaplan
- INSERM U1163; Génétique Ophtalmologique; Paris France
| | - D. Lehalle
- Centre de Génétique et Centre de Référence "Anomalies du Développement et Syndromes Malformatifs; Hôpital d'Enfants; Dijon France
| | - C. Francannet
- Service de Génétique Médicale; CHU Estaing; Clermont-Ferrand France
| | - G. Morin
- Service de génétique; Hôpital nord d’Amiens; Amiens France
| | - H. Colineaux
- Department of Epidemiology, Health Economics and Public Health; Toulouse University Hospital; France
- LEASP UMR1027, INSERM; Université Toulouse III; Toulouse France
| | - P. Calvas
- Service de Génétique Médicale, Hôpital Purpan, CHU Toulouse; Toulouse France
- INSERM U1056; Université Toulouse III; Toulouse France
| | - N. Chassaing
- Service de Génétique Médicale, Hôpital Purpan, CHU Toulouse; Toulouse France
- INSERM U1056; Université Toulouse III; Toulouse France
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12
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Genes and pathways in optic fissure closure. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2017; 91:55-65. [PMID: 29198497 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Revised: 08/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Embryonic development of the vertebrate eye begins with the formation of an optic vesicle which folds inwards to form a double-layered optic cup with a fissure on the ventral surface, known as the optic fissure. Closure of the optic fissure is essential for subsequent growth and development of the eye. A defect in this process can leave a gap in the iris, retina or optic nerve, known as a coloboma, which can lead to severe visual impairment. This review brings together current information about genes and pathways regulating fissure closure from human coloboma patients and animal models. It focuses especially on current understanding of the morphological changes and processes of epithelial remodelling occurring at the fissure margins.
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13
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Rim JH, Lee ST, Gee HY, Lee BJ, Choi JR, Park HW, Han SH, Han J. Accuracy of Next-Generation Sequencing for Molecular Diagnosis in Patients With Infantile Nystagmus Syndrome. JAMA Ophthalmol 2017; 135:1376-1385. [PMID: 29145603 PMCID: PMC6583550 DOI: 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2017.4859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 09/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Importance Infantile nystagmus syndrome (INS) is a group of disorders presenting with genetic and clinical heterogeneities that have challenged the genetic and clinical diagnoses of INS. Precise molecular diagnosis in early infancy may result in more accurate genetic counseling and improved patient management. Objective To assess the accuracy of genomic data from next-generation sequencing (NGS) and phenotypic data to enhance the definitive diagnosis of INS. Design, Setting, and Participants A single-center retrospective case series was conducted in 48 unrelated, consecutive patients with INS, with or without associated ocular or systemic conditions, who underwent genetic testing between June 1, 2015, and January 31, 2017. Next-generation sequencing analysis was performed using a target panel that included 113 genes associated with INS (n = 47) or a TruSight One sequencing panel that included 4813 genes associated with known human phenotypes (n = 1). Variants were filtered and prioritized by in-depth clinical review, and finally classified according to the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics guidelines. Patients underwent a detailed ophthalmic examination, including electroretinography and optical coherence tomography, if feasible. Main Outcomes and Measures Diagnostic yield of targeted NGS testing. Results Among the 48 patients (21 female and 27 male; mean [SD] age at genetic testing, 9.2 [10.3] years), 8 had a family history of nystagmus and 40 were simplex. All patients were of a single ethnicity (Korean). Genetic variants that were highly likely to be causative were identified in 28 of the 48 patients, corresponding to a molecular diagnostic yield of 58.3% (95% CI, 44.4%-72.2%). FRMD7, GPR143, and PAX6 mutations appeared to be the major genetic causes of familial INS. A total of 10 patients (21%) were reclassified to a different diagnosis based on results of NGS testing, enabling accurate clinical management. Conclusions and Relevance These findings suggest that NGS is an accurate diagnostic tool to differentiate causes of INS because diagnostic tests, such as electroretinography and optical coherence tomography, are not easily applicable in young infants. Accurate application of NGS using a standardized, stepwise, team-based approach in early childhood not only facilitated early molecular diagnosis but also led to improved personalized management in patients with INS.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Hoon Rim
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Medicine, Yonsei University Graduate School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Pharmacology, Brain Korea 21 Plus Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Seung-Tae Lee
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Heon Yung Gee
- Department of Medicine, Yonsei University Graduate School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Pharmacology, Brain Korea 21 Plus Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Byung Joo Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University Graduate School, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jong Rak Choi
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hye Won Park
- Department of Ophthalmology, Severance Hospital, Institute of Vision Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sueng-Han Han
- Department of Ophthalmology, Severance Hospital, Institute of Vision Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jinu Han
- Department of Ophthalmology, Severance Hospital, Institute of Vision Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Ophthalmology, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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14
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Plaisancie J, Calvas P, Chassaing N. Genetic Advances in Microphthalmia. J Pediatr Genet 2016; 5:184-188. [PMID: 27895970 DOI: 10.1055/s-0036-1592350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Congenital ocular anomalies such as anophthalmia and microphthalmia (AM) are severe craniofacial malformations in human. The etiologies of these ocular globe anomalies are diverse but the genetic origin appears to be a predominant cause. Until recently, genetic diagnosis capability was rather limited in AM patients and only a few genes were available for routine genetic testing. While some issues remain poorly understood, knowledge regarding the molecular basis of AM dramatically improved over the last years with the development of new molecular screening technologies. Thus, the genetic cause is now identifiable in more than 50% of patients with a severe bilateral eye phenotype and in around 30% of all AM patients taken together. Such advances in the knowledge of these genetic bases are important as they improve the quality of care, in terms of diagnosis, prognosis, and genetic counseling delivered to the patients and their families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Plaisancie
- Department of Medical Genetics, Purpan University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Patrick Calvas
- Department of Medical Genetics, Purpan University Hospital, Toulouse, France; U1056 INSERM-FRE 3742 CNRS-Université Toulouse III, Toulouse, France
| | - Nicolas Chassaing
- Department of Medical Genetics, Purpan University Hospital, Toulouse, France; U1056 INSERM-FRE 3742 CNRS-Université Toulouse III, Toulouse, France
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15
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SHEN TONY, LEE ARIEL, SHEN CAROL, LIN C. The long tail and rare disease research: the impact of next-generation sequencing for rare Mendelian disorders. Genet Res (Camb) 2015; 97:e15. [PMID: 26365496 PMCID: PMC6863629 DOI: 10.1017/s0016672315000166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2014] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
There are an estimated 6000-8000 rare Mendelian diseases that collectively affect 30 million individuals in the United States. The low incidence and prevalence of these diseases present significant challenges to improving diagnostics and treatments. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have revolutionized research of rare diseases. This article will first comment on the effectiveness of NGS through the lens of long-tailed economics. We then provide an overview of recent developments and challenges of NGS-based research on rare diseases. As the quality of NGS studies improve and the cost of sequencing decreases, NGS will continue to make a significant impact on the study of rare diseases moving forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- TONY SHEN
- Rare Genomics Institute, 5225 Pooks Hills Road, Suite 1701N, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
- Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - ARIEL LEE
- Rare Genomics Institute, 5225 Pooks Hills Road, Suite 1701N, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
- Nova Southeastern University, College of Osteopathic Medicine, 3301 College Avenue, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 333314-796, USA
| | - CAROL SHEN
- Rare Genomics Institute, 5225 Pooks Hills Road, Suite 1701N, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
- Washington University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - C.JIMMY LIN
- Rare Genomics Institute, 5225 Pooks Hills Road, Suite 1701N, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
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16
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Deml B, Reis LM, Lemyre E, Clark RD, Kariminejad A, Semina EV. Novel mutations in PAX6, OTX2 and NDP in anophthalmia, microphthalmia and coloboma. Eur J Hum Genet 2015; 24:535-41. [PMID: 26130484 PMCID: PMC4929874 DOI: 10.1038/ejhg.2015.155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Revised: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Anophthalmia and microphthalmia (A/M) are developmental ocular malformations defined as the complete absence or reduction in size of the eye. A/M is a highly heterogeneous disorder with SOX2 and FOXE3 playing major roles in dominant and recessive pedigrees, respectively; however, the majority of cases lack a genetic etiology. We analyzed 28 probands affected with A/M spectrum (without mutations in SOX2/FOXE3) by whole-exome sequencing. Analysis of 83 known A/M factors identified pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants in PAX6, OTX2 and NDP in three patients. A novel heterozygous likely pathogenic variant in PAX6, c.767T>C, p.(Val256Ala), was identified in two brothers with bilateral microphthalmia, coloboma, primary aphakia, iris hypoplasia, sclerocornea and congenital glaucoma; the unaffected mother appears to be a mosaic carrier. While A/M has been reported as a rare feature, this is the first report of congenital primary aphakia in association with PAX6 and the identified allele represents the first variant in the PAX6 homeodomain to be associated with A/M. A novel pathogenic variant in OTX2, c.651delC, p.(Thr218Hisfs*76), in a patient with syndromic bilateral anophthalmia and a hemizygous pathogenic variant in NDP, c.293 C>T, p.(Pro98Leu), in two brothers with isolated bilateral microphthalmia and sclerocornea were also identified. Pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants were not discovered in the 25 remaining A/M cases. This study underscores the utility of whole-exome sequencing for identification of causative mutations in highly variable ocular phenotypes as well as the extreme genetic heterogeneity of A/M conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett Deml
- Department of Pediatrics and Children's Research Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA.,Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, WI, USA
| | - Linda M Reis
- Department of Pediatrics and Children's Research Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Emmanuelle Lemyre
- Service de Génétique médicale, CHU Ste-Justine, Département de Pédiatrie, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada
| | - Robin D Clark
- Division of Medical Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Loma Linda University Children's Hospital, Loma Linda, CA 92354
| | | | - Elena V Semina
- Department of Pediatrics and Children's Research Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA.,Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, WI, USA
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17
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Reis LM, Semina EV. Conserved genetic pathways associated with microphthalmia, anophthalmia, and coloboma. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 105:96-113. [PMID: 26046913 DOI: 10.1002/bdrc.21097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The human eye is a complex organ whose development requires extraordinary coordination of developmental processes. The conservation of ocular developmental steps in vertebrates suggests possible common genetic mechanisms. Genetic diseases involving the eye represent a leading cause of blindness in children and adults. During the last decades, there has been an exponential increase in genetic studies of ocular disorders. In this review, we summarize current success in identification of genes responsible for microphthalmia, anophthalmia, and coloboma (MAC) phenotypes, which are associated with early defects in embryonic eye development. Studies in animal models for the orthologous genes identified overlapping phenotypes for most factors, confirming the conservation of their function in vertebrate development. These animal models allow for further investigation of the mechanisms of MAC, integration of various identified genes into common developmental pathways and finally, provide an avenue for the development and testing of therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda M Reis
- Department of Pediatrics and Children's Research Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Elena V Semina
- Department of Pediatrics and Children's Research Institute, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.,Department of Ophthalmology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.,Department of Cell Biology Neurobiology, and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
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