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Fernandez B, Armengaud J, Subra G, Enjalbal C. MALDI‐MS/MS of N‐Terminal TMPP‐Acyl Peptides: A Worthwhile Tool to Decipher Protein N‐Termini. European J Org Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202101549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Fernandez
- IBMM Université de Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM 34293 Montpellier France
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS) SPI 30200 Bagnols-sur-Cèze France
- Present address: CIRAD, UMR ASTRE 34398 Montpellier France
| | - Jean Armengaud
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS) SPI 30200 Bagnols-sur-Cèze France
| | - Gilles Subra
- IBMM Université de Montpellier, CNRS, ENSCM 34293 Montpellier France
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2
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Leitner A. A review of the role of chemical modification methods in contemporary mass spectrometry-based proteomics research. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1000:2-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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3
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Peptide Sequencing Directly on Solid Surfaces Using MALDI Mass Spectrometry. Sci Rep 2017; 7:17811. [PMID: 29259225 PMCID: PMC5736625 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-18105-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
There are an increasing variety of applications in which peptides are both synthesized and used attached to solid surfaces. This has created a need for high throughput sequence analysis directly on surfaces. However, common sequencing approaches that can be adapted to surface bound peptides lack the throughput often needed in library-based applications. Here we describe a simple approach for sequence analysis directly on solid surfaces that is both high speed and high throughput, utilizing equipment available in most protein analysis facilities. In this approach, surface bound peptides, selectively labeled at their N-termini with a positive charge-bearing group, are subjected to controlled degradation in ammonia gas, resulting in a set of fragments differing by a single amino acid that remain spatially confined on the surface they were bound to. These fragments can then be analyzed by MALDI mass spectrometry, and the peptide sequences read directly from the resulting spectra.
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4
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Setner B, Rudowska M, Kluczyk A, Stefanowicz P, Szewczuk Z. The 5-azoniaspiro[4.4]nonyl group for improved MS peptide analysis: A novel non-fragmenting ionization tag for mass spectrometric sensitive sequencing of peptides. Anal Chim Acta 2017; 986:71-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Revised: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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5
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Shen H, An M, Zou X, Zhao X, Wang Q, Xing G, Ji J. Evaluation of the accuracy of protein quantification using isotope TMPP-labeled peptides. Proteomics 2015; 15:2903-9. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201400495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2014] [Revised: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hongyan Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research; College of Life Sciences; Peking University; Beijing P. R. China
| | - Mingrui An
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research; College of Life Sciences; Peking University; Beijing P. R. China
| | - Xiao Zou
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research; College of Life Sciences; Peking University; Beijing P. R. China
| | - Xuyang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research; College of Life Sciences; Peking University; Beijing P. R. China
| | - Qingsong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research; College of Life Sciences; Peking University; Beijing P. R. China
| | - Guowen Xing
- Institute of Organic Chemistry; College of Chemistry; Beijing Normal University; Beijing P. R. China
| | - Jianguo Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research; College of Life Sciences; Peking University; Beijing P. R. China
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6
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Setner B, Rudowska M, Klem E, Cebrat M, Szewczuk Z. Peptides derivatized with bicyclic quaternary ammonium ionization tags. Sequencing via tandem mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2014; 49:995-1001. [PMID: 25303389 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2014] [Revised: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/06/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Improving the sensitivity of detection and fragmentation of peptides to provide reliable sequencing of peptides is an important goal of mass spectrometric analysis. Peptides derivatized by bicyclic quaternary ammonium ionization tags: 1-azabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (ABCO) or 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO), are characterized by an increased detection sensitivity in electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and longer retention times on the reverse-phase (RP) chromatography columns. The improvement of the detection limit was observed even for peptides dissolved in 10 mM NaCl. Collision-induced dissociation tandem mass spectrometry of quaternary ammonium salts derivatives of peptides showed dominant a- and b-type ions, allowing facile sequencing of peptides. The bicyclic ionization tags are stable in collision-induced dissociation experiments, and the resulted fragmentation pattern is not significantly influenced by either acidic or basic amino acid residues in the peptide sequence. Obtained results indicate the general usefulness of the bicyclic quaternary ammonium ionization tags for ESI-MS/MS sequencing of peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bartosz Setner
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wrocław, F. Joliot-Curie 14, 50-383, Wrocław, Poland
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He Y, Parthasarathi R, Raghavachari K, Reilly JP. Photodissociation of charge tagged peptides. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2012; 23:1182-1190. [PMID: 22532332 DOI: 10.1007/s13361-012-0379-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2011] [Revised: 02/29/2012] [Accepted: 03/16/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Tris(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl) phosphonium acetyl (TMPP-Ac) was previously introduced to improve the mass spectrometric sequence analysis of peptides by fixing a permanent charge at the N-termini. However, peptides containing arginine residues did not fragment efficiently after TMPP-Ac modification. In this work, we combine charge derivatization with photodissociation. The fragmentation of TMPP-derivatized peptides is greatly improved and a series of N-terminal fragments is generated with complete sequence information. Arginine has a special effect on the fragmentation of the TMPP tagged peptides when it is the N-terminal peptide residue. Theoretical and experimental results suggest that this is due to hydrogen transfer from the charged N-terminus to the hydrogen-deficient peptide sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi He
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
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8
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Kim JS, Song JS, Kim Y, Park SB, Kim HJ. De novo analysis of protein N-terminal sequence utilizing MALDI signal enhancing derivatization with Br signature. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 402:1911-9. [PMID: 22200925 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5642-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2011] [Revised: 11/29/2011] [Accepted: 12/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
De novo analysis of protein N-terminal sequence is important for identification of N-terminal proteolytic processing such as N-terminal methionine or signal peptide removal, or for the genome annotation of uncharacterized proteins. We introduce a de novo sequencing method of protein N terminus utilizing matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) signal enhancing picolinamidination with bromine isotopic tag incorporated to the N terminus. The doublet signature of bromine in the tandem mass (MS/MS) spectrum distinguished N-terminal ion series from C-terminal ion series, facilitating de novo N-terminal sequencing of protein. The dual advantage of MALDI signal enhancement by the basic picolinamidine and b-ion selection aided by Br signature is demonstrated using a variety of peptides. The N-terminal sequences of myoglobin and hemoglobin as model proteins were determined by incorporating the Br tag to the N terminus of the proteins and obtaining a series of b-ions with Br signature by MS/MS analysis after chymotryptic digestion of the tagged proteins. The N-terminal peptide was selected for MS/MS analysis from the chymotryptic digest based on the Br signature in the mass spectrum. Identification of phosphorylation site as well as N-terminal sequencing of a phosphopeptide was straightforward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong-Seo Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea.
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9
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An M, Dai J, Wang Q, Tong Y, Ji J. Efficient and clean charge derivatization of peptides for analysis by mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2010; 24:1869-1874. [PMID: 20533316 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.4589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Charge derivatization with succinimidyloxycarbonylmethyl tris(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl)phosphonium bromide (TMPP-Ac-OSu) has great potential in several aspects of proteomics, such as peptide de novo sequencing, PTM analysis, etc. However, the excess reagent and its side products greatly limited its scope of use. Here, we report an improved method to perform charge derivatization of peptides by TMPP-Ac-OSu without interference from the excess reagent and corresponding side products. Briefly, the protein was first separated on sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) or coagulated with the gel. The protein in-gel was then incubated with a high concentration of reagent, followed by extensive washing. Afterwards, the protein was in-gel digested with trypsin according to the routine protocol. The mainly resultant peptides were attached with one positive tag on the N-termini or Lys-epsilon-NH(2). The process has been successfully applied to 2-DE resolved protein spots. Compared to the native proteins, the derivatized counterparts have higher rates of PMF identification and more straightforward tandem mass spectra. This promising method should pave the way for the practical use of charge derivatization in proteomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingrui An
- The National Laboratory of Protein Engineering and Plant Genetic Engineering, College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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10
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Woo HK, Go EP, Hoang L, Trauger SA, Bowen B, Siuzdak G, Northen TR. Phosphonium labeling for increasing metabolomic coverage of neutral lipids using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2009; 23:1849-1855. [PMID: 19449318 PMCID: PMC3052201 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.4076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry has become an indispensable tool for the global study of metabolites (metabolomics), primarily using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). However, many important classes of molecules such as neutral lipids do not ionize well by ESI and go undetected. Chemical derivatization of metabolites can enhance ionization for increased sensitivity and metabolomic coverage. Here we describe the use of tris(2,4,6,-trimethoxyphenyl)phosphonium acetic acid (TMPP-AA) to improve liquid chromatography (LC)/ESI-MS detection of hydroxylated metabolites (i.e. lipids) from serum extracts. Cholesterol which is not normally detected from serum using ESI is observed with attomole sensitivity. This approach was applied to identify four endogenous lipids (hexadecanoyl-sn-glycerol, dihydrotachysterol, octadecanol, and alpha-tocopherol) from human serum. Overall, this approach extends the types of metabolites which can be detected using standard ESI-MS instrumentation and demonstrates the potential for targeted metabolomics analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hin-Koon Woo
- Department of Molecular Biology, Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Eden P. Go
- Department of Molecular Biology, Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Linh Hoang
- Department of Molecular Biology, Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Sunia A. Trauger
- Department of Molecular Biology, Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Benjamin Bowen
- Harrington Department of Bioengineering, Arizona State University, PO Box 879709, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Gary Siuzdak
- Department of Molecular Biology, Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Trent R. Northen
- Department of Molecular Biology, Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
- Department of GTL Bioenergy and Structural Biology, Life Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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12
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Kim P, Laivenieks M, McKinlay J, Vieille C, Gregory Zeikus J. Construction of a shuttle vector for the overexpression of recombinant proteins in Actinobacillus succinogenes. Plasmid 2004; 51:108-15. [PMID: 15003707 DOI: 10.1016/j.plasmid.2003.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2003] [Revised: 11/12/2003] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
To express foreign proteins in Actinobacillus succinogenes, a shuttle vector was constructed based on the Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae-Escherichia coli shuttle vector, pGZRS-19. We demonstrated that A. succinogenes is transformed by electroporation at reasonably high efficiency, that pGZRS-19 is stable in A. succinogenes, and that the ampicillin resistance gene carried by pGZRS-19 is expressed in A. succinogenes. Three steps were then required to develop our A. succinogenes-E. coli shuttle vector. (i) The constitutively expressed A. succinogenes phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene, pckA, was cloned and sequenced. (ii) Its promoter region and ribosome-binding site were subcloned into pGZRS-19. (iii) Finally, the ColE1 origin of replication was added to the vector to increase its stability in E. coli. High levels of A. succinogenes phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, E. coli NADP-dependent malic enzyme, and Bacillus subtilis NAD-dependent malic enzyme activities detected in recombinant A. succinogenes strains confirmed that A. succinogenes and foreign proteins could be expressed in A. succinogenes under control of the A. succinogenes pckA promoter carried by pLGZ920. A. succinogenes is sensitive to chloramphenicol and tetracycline. Although not expressed from their own promoters, the Tn9 chloramphenicol and the Tn10 tetracycline resistance genes are expressed under control of the pckA promoter, and they can be used as additional selection markers in A. succinogenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pil Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1319, USA
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Zhang W, Krutchinsky AN, Chait BT. "De novo" peptide sequencing by MALDI-quadrupole-ion trap mass spectrometry: a preliminary study. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2003; 14:1012-1021. [PMID: 12954169 DOI: 10.1016/s1044-0305(03)00346-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Collision-induced dissociation of singly charged peptide ions produced by resonant excitation in a matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) ion trap mass spectrometer yields relatively low complexity MS/MS spectra that exhibit highly preferential fragmentation, typically occurring adjacent to aspartyl, glutamyl, and prolyl residues. Although these spectra have proven to be of considerable utility for database-driven protein identification, they have generally been considered to contain insufficient information to be useful for extensive de novo sequencing. Here, we report a procedure for de novo sequencing of peptides that uses MS/MS data generated by an in-house assembled MALDI-quadrupole-ion trap mass spectrometer (Krutchinsky, Kalkum, and Chait Anal. Chem. 2001, 73, 5066-5077). Peptide sequences of up 14 amino acid residues in length have been deduced from digests of proteins separated by SDS-PAGE. Key to the success of the current procedure is an ability to obtain MS/MS spectra with high signal-to-noise ratios and to efficiently detect relatively low abundance fragment ions that result from the less favorable fragmentation pathways. The high signal-to-noise ratio yields sufficiently accurate mass differences to allow unambiguous amino acid sequence assignments (with a few exceptions), and the efficient detection of low abundance fragment ions allows continuous reads through moderately long stretches of sequence. Finally, we show how the aforementioned preferential cleavage property of singly charged ions can be used to facilitate the de novo sequencing process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenzhu Zhang
- The Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10021, USA
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15
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Marekov LN, Steinert PM. Charge derivatization by 4-sulfophenyl isothiocyanate enhances peptide sequencing by post-source decay matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2003; 38:373-377. [PMID: 12717748 DOI: 10.1002/jms.448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
High-sensitivity, rapid identification of proteins in proteomic studies normally uses a combination of one- or two-dimensional electrophoresis together with mass spectrometry. The simplicity and sensitivity of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOFMS) have increased its application in recent years. The most common method of 'peptide fingerprinting' often may not provide robust identification. Normally additional sequence information by post-source decay (PSD) MALDI-TOFMS provides additional constraints for database searches to achieve highly confident results. Here we describe a derivatization procedure to facilitate the acquisition of such sequence information. Peptide digests from a skin-expressed protein were modified with 4-sulfophenyl isothiocyanate. The resulting peptides carry a fixed negative charge at the N-terminal end and the resulting PSD spectrum is dominated by C-terminal y-type ions. The sequence information in most cases can be obtained manually or with simple programming tools. Methods of optimizing the procedure and increasing the sensitivity are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyuben N Marekov
- Laboratory of Skin Biology, National Institute of Arthritis, Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
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Adamczyk M, Gebler JC, Wu J, Yu Z. Complete sequencing of anti-vancomycin fab fragment by liquid chromatography-electrospray ion trap mass spectrometry with a combination of database searching and manual interpretation of the MS/MS spectra. J Immunol Methods 2002; 260:235-49. [PMID: 11792392 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1759(01)00552-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Sequencing of anti-vancomycin monoclonal antibody (mAb) Fab region (48,000 Da) was carried out using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization ion trap mass spectrometry (LC/ESI-MS). Comprehensive strategies were employed to ensure complete sequence coverage. The sequence information was obtained from the spectra of collision-induced dissociation (CID) (MS/MS) of the protonated proteolytic peptides resulting from multiple enzymatic digestions of reduced/S-carboxymethylated (RCM) light chain and Fd fragment. Database searching of the spectra against the published immunoglobulin G (IgG) sequences allowed the identification of all the peptides in constant domains as well as partial sequences in variable domains. The rest of the sequences were deduced by manual interpretation of the peptide tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) spectra. The analysis showed that the N-terminus of the heavy chain was modified by the conversion of a glutamine residue to pyroglutamic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Adamczyk
- Department of Organic Chemistry (9NM), Abbott Diagnostics Division, Abbott Laboratories, 100 Abbott Park Road, Abbott Park, IL 60064-6016, USA.
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Gevaert K, Demol H, Martens L, Hoorelbeke B, Puype M, Goethals M, Van Damme J, De Boeck S, Vandekerckhove J. Protein identification based on matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization-post source decay-mass spectrometry. Electrophoresis 2001; 22:1645-51. [PMID: 11425220 DOI: 10.1002/1522-2683(200105)22:9<1645::aid-elps1645>3.0.co;2-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Due to its very short analysis time, its high sensitivity and ease of automation, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI)-peptide mass fingerprinting has become the preferred method for identifying proteins of which the sequences are available in databases. However, many protein samples cannot be unambiguously identified by exclusively using their peptide mass fingerprints (e.g., protein mixtures, heavily posttranslationally modified proteins and small proteins). In these cases, additional sequence information is needed and one of the obvious choices when working with MALDI-mass spectrometry (MS) is to choose for post source decay (PSD) analysis on selected peptides. This can be performed on the same sample which is used for peptide mass fingerprinting. Although in this type of peptide analysis, fragmentation yields are very low and PSD spectra are often very difficult to interpret manually, we here report upon our five years of experience with the use of PSD spectra for protein identification in sequence (protein or expressed sequence tag (EST)) databases. The combination of peptide mass fingerprinting and PSD and analysis described here generally leads to unambiguous protein identification in the amount of material range generally encountered in most proteome studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Gevaert
- Flanders Interuniversity, Department of Medical Protein Research, Ghent University, Belgium.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Godovac-Zimmermann
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Department of Medicine, University College London, 5 University Street, London WC1E 6JJ, United Kingdom.
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Abstract
Until recently scientists studied genes or proteins one at a time. With improvements in technology, new tools have become available to study the complex interactions that occur in biological systems. Global studies are required to do this, and these will involve genomic and proteomic approaches. High-throughput methods are necessary in each case because the number of genes and proteins in even the simplest of organisms are immense. In the developmental phase of genomics, the emphasis was on the generation and assembly of large amounts of nucleic acid sequence data. Proteomics is currently in a phase of technological development and establishment, and demonstrating the capacity for high throughput is a major challenge. However, funding bodies (both in the public and private sector) are increasingly focused on the usefulness of this capacity. Here we review the current state of proteome research in terms of capacity and utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Harry
- Proteome Systems Limited, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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