The surgical treatment of spasticity

Spasticity evaluation and management tools

Spasticity is a complex and often disabling symptom for patients with upper motor neuron syndromes. Although spasticity arises from neurological disease, it often cascades into muscle and soft tissue changes, which may exacerbate symptoms and further hamper function. Effective management therefore hinges on early recognition and treatment. To this end, the definition of spasticity has expanded over time to more accurately reflect the spectrum of symptoms experienced by persons with this disorder. Once identified, clinical and research quantitative assessments of spasticity are hindered by the uniqueness of presentations both for individuals and for specific neurological diagnoses. Objective measures in isolation often fail to reflect the complex functional impact of spasticity. Multiple tools exist to quantitatively or qualitatively assess the severity of spasticity, including clinician and patient-reported measures as well as electrodiagnostic, mechanical, and ultrasound measures. A combination of objective and patient-reported outcomes is likely required to better reflect the burden of spasticity symptoms in an individual. Therapeutic options exist for the treatment of spasticity along a broad spectrum from nonpharmacologic to interventional procedures. Treatment strategies may include exercise, physical agent modalities, oral medications, injections, pumps, and surgery. Optimal spasticity management most often requires a multimodal approach, combining pharmacological management with interventions that match the functional needs, goals, and preferences of the patient. Physicians and other healthcare providers who manage spasticity must be familiarized with the full array of spasticity interventions and must frequently reassess results of treatment to ensure the patient's goals of treatment are met.

A Dynamic Submaximal Fatigue Protocol Alters Wrist Biomechanical Properties and Proprioception

Fatigue is a temporary condition that arises as a result of intense and/or prolonged use of muscles and can affect skilled human performance. Therefore, the quantitative analysis of these effects is a topic of crucial interest in both ergonomics and clinical settings. This study introduced a novel protocol, based on robotic techniques, to quantitatively assess the effects of fatigue on the human wrist joint. A wrist manipulandum was used for two concurrent purposes: (1) implementing the fatigue task and (2) assessing the functional changes both before and at four time points after the end of the fatigue task. Fourteen participants completed the experimental protocol, which included the fatigue task and assessment sessions over 2 days. Specifically, the assessments performed are related to the following indicators: (1) isometric forces, (2) biomechanical properties of the wrist, (3) position sense, and (4) stretch reflexes of the muscles involved. The proposed fatigue task was a short-term, submaximal and dynamic wrist flexion/extension task designed with a torque opposing wrist flexion. A novel task termination criterion was employed and based on a percentage decrease in the mean frequency of muscles measured using surface electromyography. The muscle fatigue analysis demonstrated a change in mean frequency for both the wrist flexors and extensors, however, only the isometric flexion force decreased 4 min after the end of the task. At the same time point, wrist position sense was significantly improved and stiffness was the lowest. Viscosity presented different behaviors depending on the direction evaluated. At the end of the experiment (about 12 min after the end of the fatigue task), wrist position sense recovered to pre-fatigue values, while biomechanical properties did not return to their pre-fatigue values. Due to the wide variety of fatigue tasks proposed in the literature, it has been difficult to define a complete framework that presents the dynamic of fatigue-related changes in different components associated with wrist function. This work enables us to discuss the possible causes and the mutual relationship of the changes detected after the same task.

Surgical Results of Selective Dorsal Rhizotomy for the Treatment of Spastic Cerebral Palsy

Background

Selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR) is one of the surgical alternatives for treating spasticity, especially in children with spastic diplegia secondary to cerebral palsy (CP). It is becoming increasingly used, and the results of this operation need to be further highlighted.

Aim

The main objective of this article was to present the results of such surgical procedure in a cohort of a specialized center, with a particular focus on a quantitative analysis (goniometry).

Materials and Methods

Retrospective review of the medical records and gait analyses of a cohort of 34 patients diagnosed with CP submitted to elective SDR at our institution, in a period of 6 years, was carried out. All patients underwent a thorough clinical and neurological assessment, gait analysis at a dedicated laboratory, and magnetic resonance imaging of whole neuro-axis.

Statistical Analysis

For continuous quantitative variables (goniometric angles and muscle tone), a t-student test was used. A scatterplot regression analysis was used for the comparison of modified Ashworth scale (mAS) scores and goniometry measurements.

Results and Conclusion

In a mean follow-up of 3.2 years, SDR provides a measurable and consistent improvement in the motor function of spastic patients, as per range of motion and tonus scales, with low complication rates. It also allows for patients to reduce their use of muscle relaxants, even though their global mobility does not change significantly. Therefore, it should be considered for CP patients who suffer with the deleterious effects of spasticity.

Neuromodulation Therapies for Spasticity Control: Now and Beyond

Spasticity is a major cause of disability following upper motor neuron (UMN) injury. The diagnosis and treatment of spasticity has been a focus of clinicians and researchers alike. In recent years, there have been significant advances both in strategies for spasticity assessment and in the development of novel treatments. Currently, several well-established spasticity management techniques fall into the major categories of physiotherapy, pharmacotherapy, and surgical management. The majority of recent developments in all of these broad categories have focused more on methods of neuromodulation instead of simple symptomatic treatment, attempting to address the underlying cause of spasticity more directly. The following narrative review briefly discusses the causes and clinical assessment of spasticity and also details the wide variety of current and developing treatment approaches for this often-debilitating condition.

Selective dorsal rhizotomy: functional anatomy of the conus-cauda and essentials of intraoperative neurophysiology

INTRODUCTION

Spasticity is the result of an exaggeration of the monosynaptic muscle stretch reflex due to lesions affecting the central nervous system, in particular an upper motor neuron lesion. Selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR) is a surgical technique developed to treat spastic diplegia, one of the common forms of cerebral palsy, resulting from the lack of supraspinal inhibitory controls. The aim of SDR is to identify and cut a critical amount of the sensory rootlets, in particular those contributing the most to spasticity, in order to relieve the patient from lower limb spasticity while preserving motor strength and sphincter control. Various surgical techniques to perform SDR have been proposed over time. Similarly, intraoperative neurophysiology (ION)-first introduced by Fasano and colleagues in 1976-is a safe and effective tool to guide the surgeon in the procedure of SDR, but different ION strategies are used by different authors, and the value of ION itself has been questioned.

METHODS

The purpose of this paper is to review the anatomo-physiological background of SDR, the historical development of the surgical technique, and the essential principles of ION.

RESULTS

While some surgeons privilege a single-level approach and others a multi-level approach, nowadays, there are still neither agreement nor guidelines on the percentage of roots to be cut. Rather, a tailored approach based on both the preoperative functional status as well as intraoperative ION findings seems reasonable. ION is considered not essential to decide the percentage of roots to cut, but it assists to distinguish between ventral and dorsal roots, and to preserve sphincterial function, whenever S2 rootlets are included in SDR.

CONCLUSIONS

To optimize the balance between reduction of spasticity and preservation of motor strength while minimizing the neurological damage remains the main goal of SDR.

Management of Spasticity After Traumatic Brain Injury in Children

Traumatic brain injury is a common cause of disability worldwide. In fact, trauma is the second most common cause of death and disability, still today. Traumatic brain injury affects nearly 475 000 children in the United States alone. Globally it is estimated that nearly 2 million people are affected by traumatic brain injuries every year. The mechanism of injury differs between countries in the developing world, where low velocity injuries and interpersonal violence dominates, and high-income countries where high velocity injuries are more common. Traumatic brain injury is not only associated with acute problems, but patients can suffer from longstanding consequences such as seizures, spasticity, cognitive and social issues, often long after the acute injury has resolved. Spasticity is common after traumatic brain injury in children and up to 38% of patients may develop spasticity in the first 12 months after cerebral injury from stroke or trauma. Management of spasticity in children after traumatic brain injury is often overlooked as there are more pressing issues to attend to in the early phase after injury. By the time the spasticity becomes a priority, often it is too late to make meaningful improvements without reverting to major corrective surgical techniques. There is also very little written on the topic of spasticity management after traumatic brain injury, especially in children. Most of the information we have is derived from stroke research. The focus of management strategies are largely medication use, physical therapy, and other physical rehabilitative strategies, with surgical management techniques used for long-term refractory cases only. With this manuscript, the authors aim to review our current understanding of the pathophysiology and management options, as well as prevention, of spasticity after traumatic brain injury in children.

The Evolution of Selective Dorsal Rhizotomy for the Management of Spasticity

Selective dorsal rhizotomy is a key technique in the surgical management of spasticity in patients with cerebral palsy. The technique evolved from the late 1800s when pioneers like Dana and Abbe performed dorsal rhizotomy in their treatment of refractory pain. These surgeons noted a reduction in muscle tone associated with the operation. When Sherrington then published his Nobel prize-winning work on the corticospinal tract and its role in the neuromuscular system in the 1890s, the course was set for modifying spasticity by aiming surgery at the dorsal roots. This procedure underwent multiple modifications through the next century and today it is, arguably, the most commonly performed operation to treat cerebral palsy children with spasticity. Selective dorsal rhizotomy is a technique that still teaches us a great deal about neurophysiology on a daily basis and it is thanks to the pioneers, described in this article, that we have this tool in our armamentarium.

Traditional Uses of Cannabinoids and New Perspectives in the Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis

Recent findings highlight the emerging role of the endocannabinoid system in the control of symptoms and disease progression in multiple sclerosis (MS). MS is a chronic, immune-mediated, demyelinating disorder of the central nervous system with no cure so far. It is widely reported in the literature that cannabinoids might be used to control MS symptoms and that they also might exert neuroprotective effects and slow down disease progression. This review aims to give an overview of the principal cannabinoids (synthetic and endogenous) used for the symptomatic amelioration of MS and their beneficial outcomes, providing new potentially possible perspectives for the treatment of this disease.

The Role of Selective Peripheral Neurectomy in the Treatment of Upper Limb Spasticity

Background: Management of upper limb spasticity remains challenging. Selective peripheral neurectomy (SPN) is a relatively recent intervention for cases refractory to medical therapy. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review looking at the efficacy and outcomes of SPN, in order to clarify the patient selection criteria and surgical technique.

Methods: A search of MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science Core Collection, Open Grey and CINAHL was conducted. Inclusion criteria included studies comparing pre- and post-operative outcomes for SPN, neurectomy, fasciculotomy and upper limb spasticity.

Results: Only case series were reported with no randomised controlled trials found. 7 studies met the inclusion criteria with a total of 174 patients. A meta-analysis was not possible due to the degree of baseline heterogeneity. All studies had no control arm for comparison of outcomes, with a high risk of bias due to poor internal and external validity, as well as design and performance bias. Surgical techniques differ vastly between studies, with percentage of fascicles ablated between 30–80% and length of neurectomy between 5–10 mm. Some advocated removing end branches while others performed fascicular SPN proximally. 13 patients underwent orthopaedic or neurosurgical procedures, which are both confounding factors. All studies reported an improvement in spasticity although functional outcomes were reported with non-standardized measures. Recurrence rates were reported to be 0–16.1% (mean 3.72%).

Conclusions: From this systematic review, SPN appeared to be a useful technique in selected cases, but overall no firm conclusions can be drawn regarding the best surgical technique, or the extent of functional improvement.

Comparison of efficacy between dorsal root entry zone lesioning and selective dorsal rhizotomy for spasticity of cerebral origin

BACKGROUND

Severe spasticity adversely affects patient functional status and caregiving. No previous study has compared efficacy between dorsal root entry zone lesioning (DREZL) and selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR) for reduction of spasticity. This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of DREZL and SDR for attenuating spasticity, and to compare efficacy between these two methods.

METHODS

All patients who underwent DREZL, SDR, or both for treatment of intractable spasticity caused by cerebral pathology at Siriraj Hospital during 2009 to 2016 were recruited. Severity of spasticity was assessed using Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS) and Adductor Tone Rating Scale (ATRS). Ambulatory status was also evaluated.

RESULTS

Fifteen patients (13 males) with a mean age of 30.3 ± 17.5 years were included. Eight, six, and one patient underwent DREZL, SDR, and combined cervical DREZL and lumbosacral SDR, respectively. Eight of ten patients with preoperative bed-bound status had postoperative improvement in ambulatory status. Spasticity was significantly reduced in the DREZL group (p < 0.001), the SDR group (p < 0.001), and in overall analysis (p < 0.001). SDR was effective in both pediatric and adult spasticity patients. A significantly greater reduction in spasticity as assessed by MAS score (p < 0.001) and ATRS score (p = 0.015) was found in the DREZL group. Transient lower limb weakness was found in a patient who underwent SDR.

CONCLUSIONS

DREZL is more effective for reducing spasticity, but is more destructive than SDR. DREZL should be preferred for bed-ridden patients, and SDR for ambulatory patients. Both operations are helpful for improving ambulatory status. Gait improvement was observed only in patients who underwent SDR. Adult patients with spasticity of cerebral origin benefit from SDR.

Ankle Plantar-Flexion Contracture Complication After Aesthetic Calf Volume Reduction Procedure

Minimally invasive, aesthetic calf volume reduction procedures are considered to be relatively safe. Published complications are mostly transient, with minimal functional loss. We hereby report debilitating ankle plantar-flexion contracture after aesthetic calf volume reduction procedure by selective neurectomy, with magnetic resonance imaging analysis and surgical treatment outcomes of this complication. From 2009 to 2010, 11 patients (17 lower legs) were surgically treated for this complication. The average preoperative ankle contracture angle of all involved lower legs was -22 degrees (range, -5 to -30 degrees). Magnetic resonance imaging performed in 14 lower legs showed lesions indicative of denervation atrophy, with fibrotic lesions causing longitudinal shortening of the gastrocnemius muscle. Of the 17 ankle contractures, 15 Silfverskiöld test-positive cases received miniopen gastrocnemius release, whereas 2 Silfverskiöld test-negative cases received Achilles tendon lengthening by percutaneous triple hemiresection. At last follow-up, the dorsiflexion angle of all ankles improved to an average of 25 degrees (range, 20-30 degrees) with full plantar flexion in all patients, whereas the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society Ankle-Hindfoot Scale scores improved from an average of 59.2 to 94.2. Surgeons and patients alike should be aware of debilitating ankle planter flexion contractures after aesthetic calf volume reduction procedures. Using minimally invasive gastrocnemius and Achilles tendon release, we were able to provide symptomatic and functional relief from this complication with minimal cosmetic sacrifice.

Evidence for the efficacy and effectiveness of THC-CBD oromucosal spray in symptom management of patients with spasticity due to multiple sclerosis

Spasticity, one of the main symptoms of multiple sclerosis (MS), can affect more than 80% of MS patients during the course of their disease and is often not treated adequately. δ-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol-cannabidiol (THC-CBD) oromucosal spray is a plant-derived, standardized cannabinoid-based oromucosal spray medicine for add-on treatment of moderate to severe, resistant multiple sclerosis-induced spasticity. This article reviews the current evidence for the efficacy and safety, with dizziness and fatigue as the most common treatment-related adverse events, being mostly mild to moderate in severity. Results from both randomized controlled phase III studies involving about,1600 MS patients or 1500 patient-years and recently published studies on everyday clinical practice involving more than 1000 patients or more than,1000 patient-years are presented.

Long-term cure of high-grade spinal cord glioma in a pediatric patient who underwent cordectomy

High-grade spinal cord gliomas are rare and carry a poor prognosis. A number of treatment modalities exist for spinal cord gliomas, but no consensus exists regarding their management. Cordectomy represents a possible option for treating these lesions; however, few cases have been reported in adults, and none have been reported in the pediatric population. The authors describe the use of cordectomy for the treatment of a high-grade spinal glioma in a 9-year-old boy who remains cancer free 14 years following his initial presentation.

Feasibility Study on MR-Guided High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound Ablation of Sciatic Nerve in a Swine Model: Preliminary Results

INTRODUCTION

Spastic patients often seek neurolysis, the permanent destruction of the sciatic nerve, for better pain management. MRI-guided high-intensity focused ultrasound (MRgHIFU) may serve as a noninvasive alternative to the prevailing, more intrusive techniques. This in vivo acute study is aimed at performing sciatic nerve neurolysis using a clinical MRgHIFU system.

METHODS

The HIFU ablation of sciatic nerves was performed in swine (n = 5) using a HIFU system integrated with a 3 T MRI scanner. Acute lesions were confirmed using T1-weighted contrast-enhanced (CE) MRI and histopathology using hematoxylin and eosin staining. The animals were euthanized immediately following post-ablation imaging.

RESULTS

Reddening and mild thickening of the nerve and pallor of the adjacent muscle were seen in all animals. The HIFU-treated sections of the nerves displayed nuclear pyknosis of Schwann cells, vascular hyperemia, perineural edema, hyalinization of the collagenous stroma of the nerve, myelin sheet swelling, and loss of axons. Ablations were visible on CE MRI. Non-perfused volume of the lesions (5.8-64.6 cc) linearly correlated with estimated lethal thermal dose volume (4.7-34.2 cc). Skin burn adjacent to the largest ablated zone was observed in the first animal. Bilateral treatment time ranged from 55 to 138 min, and preparation time required 2 h on average.

CONCLUSION

The acute pilot study in swine demonstrated the feasibility of a noninvasive neurolysis of the sciatic nerve using a clinical MRgHIFU system. Results revealed that acute HIFU nerve lesions were detectable on CE MRI, gross pathology, and histology.

Burden of disease in multiple sclerosis patients with spasticity in Germany: mobility improvement study (Move I)

OBJECTIVES

To describe the current management patterns of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients with spasticity in Germany and the impact of MS spasticity on quality of life (QoL) and associated costs.

METHODS

Non-interventional, multicentre, cross-sectional and retrospective burden-of-disease study including 414 MS patients with spasticity (age from 25 to 80 years) from 42 clinical practices across Germany. All patients were diagnosed with MS-related spasticity based on neurological examination at least 12 months before inclusion in the study. Three different forms were completed on different aspects of the disease: the patient questionnaire, the chart documentation form and the physician questionnaire.

RESULTS

Mild, moderate and severe spasticity were found in 27.3, 44.0 and 28.7 % of patients, respectively. Associated symptoms and QoL scores were worse in patients with higher degrees of spasticity. In particular, higher mean scores for sleep impairment (mild vs. severe, 2.1 vs. 4.3), mean spasm count (3/day vs. 10.1/day), mean WEIMuS fatigue score (15.8 vs. 19.8), increased walking time (9.6 vs. 20.2 s) and lower mean QoL scores (MSQoL-54 physical subscale, 54.9 vs. 39.5; EQ-5D, 0.60 vs. 0.30) were reported in patients with severe spasticity in comparison to patients with mild spasticity. Patient management mainly comprised physiotherapy (mild vs. severe, 65.5 vs. 85.7 %) and medication (84.2 vs. 64.8 %) with baclofen. The average cost for patients with mild spasticity was €2,268/year, increasing to €8,688/patient/year for patients with severe spasticity. The health insurance costs showed the same trend.

CONCLUSIONS

MS patients with spasticity suffer a significant burden because of resulting disabilities and reduced QoL, especially in cases of severe spasticity. Moreover, spasticity causes high costs that increase with increasing severity.

Modification of spasticity by transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation in individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury

CONTEXT/OBJECTIVE

To examine the effects of transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation (tSCS) on lower-limb spasticity.

DESIGN

Interventional pilot study to produce preliminary data.

SETTING

Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Wilhelminenspital, Vienna, Austria.

PARTICIPANTS

Three subjects with chronic motor-incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI) who could walk ≥10 m.

INTERVENTIONS

Two interconnected stimulating skin electrodes (Ø 5 cm) were placed paraspinally at the T11/T12 vertebral levels, and two rectangular electrodes (8 × 13 cm) on the abdomen for the reference. Biphasic 2 ms-width pulses were delivered at 50 Hz for 30 minutes at intensities producing paraesthesias but no motor responses in the lower limbs.

OUTCOME MEASURES

The Wartenberg pendulum test and neurological recordings of surface-electromyography (EMG) were used to assess effects on exaggerated reflex excitability. Non-functional co-activation during volitional movement was evaluated. The timed 10-m walk test provided measures of clinical function.

RESULTS

The index of spasticity derived from the pendulum test changed from 0.8 ± 0.4 pre- to 0.9 ± 0.3 post-stimulation, with an improvement in the subject with the lowest pre-stimulation index. Exaggerated reflex responsiveness was decreased after tSCS across all subjects, with the most profound effect on passive lower-limb movement (pre- to post-tSCS EMG ratio: 0.2 ± 0.1), as was non-functional co-activation during voluntary movement. Gait speed values increased in two subjects by 39%.

CONCLUSION

These preliminary results suggest that tSCS, similar to epidurally delivered stimulation, may be used for spasticity control, without negatively impacting residual motor control in incomplete SCI. Further study in a larger population is warranted.

Multiple sclerosis symptom management

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common cause of nontraumatic disability in young adults. The increasing emphasis on early treatment with disease-modifying therapies has the goal of preventing long-term disability. However, current disease treatments are only partially effective, and most patients experience a variety of neurologic symptoms at various times during their disease course. Because these symptoms often have a profound impact on social, occupational and physical performance, effective symptom management is an important component of therapy to maintain quality of life. Effective symptom management often requires a multidisciplinary team approach. This review outlines general principles of the management of MS symptoms.

The utility of musculoskeletal ultrasound in rehabilitation settings

Aside from its prompt use in musculoskeletal injuries (sports lesions, degenerative/inflammatory joint disorders, and peripheral nerve pathologies), ultrasonographic imaging can be used quite conveniently in various types of rehabilitation conditions as well. If used in a rehabilitation setting, ultrasound can significantly contribute to the diagnostic/therapeutic algorithm of rehabilitation patients. Accordingly, in this article, the authors focus on the diagnostic/interventional utility of ultrasound particularly for shoulder problems, overuse injuries of wheelchair users, heterotopic ossification, amputee follow-up, peripheral nerve and botulinum toxin injections, and diaphragm imaging/electromyography.

Spasticity following spinal cord injury

BACKGROUND

Up to 70% of patients with spinal cord injuries develop spasticity. The main aim of the paper is to provide an overview of spasticity management, primarily in patients with spinal cord injuries.

METHOD

The article is based on literature searches in PubMed using the keyphrases «spasticity» and «spasticity AND spinal cord injury», and own clinical experience and research.

RESULTS

Spasticity may be general, regional or localised. Factors such as an over-filled bladder, obstipation, acute infections, syringomyelia or bone fractures may substantially influence the degree of spasticity and must be determined. An assessment of the clinical and functional consequences for the patient is decisive before management. Active exercise, physiotherapy and peroral drugs are the simplest and cheapest options. Baclofen is the only centrally acting spasmolytic registered in Norway and is the first choice for peroral treatment. Benzodiazepines can also be used. The effect of the tablets is generally limited and there are often pronounced side effects. Local spasticity can be treated with botulinum toxin injections. The effect is time-limited and the treatment must be repeated. International guidelines recommend a combination of botulinum toxin injections and physiotherapy. In cases of regional spasticity, particularly in the lower limbs, intrathecal baclofen administered via a programmable pump may provide a continuous spasm-reducing effect. Orthopaedic surgery or neurosurgery may be an option for selected patients with intractable spasticity.

INTERPRETATION

Spasticity following a spinal cord injury must be assessed regularly. The treatment strategy depends on the degree of functional failure caused by the spasticity and its location.

Surgical results of selective median neurotomy for wrist and finger spasticity

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the surgical outcomes of selective median neurotomy (SMN) for spastic wrist and fingers.

METHODS

We studied 22 patients with wrist and finger spasticity refractory to optimal oral medication and physical therapy. The authors evaluated spasticity of the wrist and finger muscles by comparing preoperative states with postoperative states using the modified Ashworth scale (MAS). We checked patients for changes in pain according to the visual analog scale (VAS) and degree of satisfaction based on the VAS.

RESULTS

The preoperative mean MAS score was 3.27±0.46 (mean±SD), and mean MAS scores at 3, 6, and 12 months after surgery were 1.82±0.5, 1.73±0.7, and 1.77±0.81 (mean±SD), respectively. On the last follow-up visit, the mean MAS score measured 1.64±0.9 (mean±SD). Wrist and finger spasticity was significantly decreased at 3, 6, and 12 months after the operation (p<0.01). The preoperative mean pain VAS score was 5.85±1.07 (mean±SD), and the mean pain VAS score on the last follow-up visit after surgery was 2.28±1.8 (mean±SD). Compared with the preoperative mean pain VAS score, postoperative mean pain VAS score was decreased significantly (p<0.01). On the basis of a VAS ranging from 0 to 100, the mean degree of patient satisfaction was 64.09±15.93 (mean±SD, range 30-90).

CONCLUSION

The authors propose SMN as a possible effective procedure in achieving useful, long-lasting tone and in gaining voluntary movements in spastic wrists and fingers with low morbidity rates.

Future directions for spinal cord injury research: recent developments and model systems contributions

The authors look forward and discuss future directions in spinal cord injury (SCI) from a perspective of biomedical, psychosocial and technologic research. This discussion is based both on recent developments from various fields of knowledge and, more specifically, on SCI Model Systems' research contributions to medical rehabilitation. Biomedical research, as described here, includes (1) the process of moving from the "bench to bedside" and harnessing knowledge from basic science to produce new clinical treatment options for SCI during the life span; (2) the rapid proliferation of clinical trials aimed at neurologic recovery; (3) the growth of new technologies to restore and improve function; and (4) the challenges of developing relevant outcome measures to evaluate efficacy and effectiveness of interventions. Recent progress in psychosocial research has contributed significantly to understanding of the many factors associated with disability during the life course, the importance of quality of life issues, and the value of activity, participation, and the environment in promoting successful rehabilitation outcomes following SCI. Technology and bioengineering advances are discussed in relation to access to high-quality technology; restoration and replacement of movement; and technology to enhance rehabilitation outcomes.

Selective musculocutaneous neurotomy for spastic elbow

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness and outcome of selective musculocutaneous neurotomy (SMcN) for spastic elbow.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 14 patients with spasticity of their elbows. The patients were selected using clinical and analytical scales, as well as nerve block tests, for assessment. Their mean age was 37.29 years (range, 19-63 years). SMcN was performed for these patients, and the mean follow-up period was 30.71 months (range, 19-54 months).

RESULTS

The modified Ashworth scale (MAS) scores recorded before and after the SMcN showed that the patients' mean preoperative MAS score of 3.28 ± 0.12 was improved to 1.71 ± 0.12, 1.78 ± 0.18, 1.92 ± 0.16 and 1.78 ± 0.18 at postoperative 3, 6, 12 months and last follow-up, respectively. On the basis of a visual analogue score ranging from 0-100, the patients' mean degree of satisfaction score was 65.00 ± 16.52 (range, 30-90).

CONCLUSION

We believe that SMcN can be a good and effective treatment modality with low morbidity in appropriately selected patients who have localized spastic elbow with good antagonist muscles and without joint contracture.

Selective percutaneous myofascial lengthening of the lower extremities in children with spastic cerebral palsy

Children with spastic cerebral palsy commonly acquire lower extremity musculoskeletal deformities that at some point may need surgical correction. The authors present 58 children with spastic cerebral palsy who underwent selective percutaneous myofascial lengthening of the hip adductor group and the medial or the lateral hamstrings. All the patients were spastic diplegic, hemiplegic, or quadriplegic. The indications for surgery were a primary contracture that interfered with the patients' walking or sitting ability or joint subluxation. Gross motor ability and gross motor function of the children were evaluated using the gross motor function classification system (GMFCS) and the gross motor function measure (GMFM), respectively. The mean time of the surgical procedure was 14 minutes (range, 1 to 27 minutes). All patients were discharged from the hospital setting the same day after the operation. There were no infections, overlengthening, nerve palsies, or vascular complications. Three patients required repeat procedures for relapsed hamstring and adductor contractures at 8, 14, and 16 months postoperatively. At 2 years after the initial operation, all the children improved on their previous functional level; 34 children improved by one GMFCS level, and 5 children improved by two GMFCS levels. The overall improvement in mean GMFM scores was from 71.19 to 83.19.

An acute pain service improves postoperative pain management for children undergoing selective dorsal rhizotomy

BACKGROUND

A continuous epidural infusion of morphine is the pain treatment modality for children undergoing selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR) in our institution. The aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of having an organized acute pain service (APS) on postoperative pain management of these children.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study using anesthetic records and the APS database to compare the postoperative pain management of children undergoing SDR before and after the introduction of the APS at the Montreal Children's Hospital in April 2001. Ninety-two consecutive children who had their surgery between January 1997 and July 2006 were included. We collected data regarding postoperative pain, opioid-induced side effects, complications (sedation, desaturations < 92%), and hospital length of stay.

RESULTS

Pain scores were documented more frequently after the implementation of the APS (61% vs 48.5%). Sedation scores were documented only after the implementation of the APS. Postoperative desaturation was significantly more frequent in the pre-APS group compared to the APS group (45.5% vs 6.8%, P < 0.001). Despite the fact that the epidural catheter was in place for the same duration for both groups [median of 3 days (3-3 25-75%ile)], the duration of hospitalization was 1 day shorter in the APS group compared to the pre-APS group [median of 5 (5-5 25-75%ile) vs 6 (5-6 25-75%ile) days, P < 0.001].

CONCLUSIONS

Although we recognize that it is possible that there were changes in care not related specifically to the introduction of a dedicated APS that occurred in our institution that resulted in improvements in general postoperative care and in length of stay, our study did show that having an organized APS allowed to significantly decrease the incidence of postoperative oxygen desaturation and to decrease the hospital length of stay by 1 day.

Stroke rehabilitation: strategies to enhance motor recovery

Recent evidence indicates that the brain can remodel after stroke, primarily through synaptogenesis. Task-specific and repetitive exercise appear to be key factors in promoting synaptogenesis and are central elements in rehabilitation of motor weakness following stroke. Expert medical management ensures a patient is well enough to participate in rehabilitation with minimal distractions due to pain or depression. Contraint-induced motor therapy and body-weight-supported ambulation are forms of exercise that "force use" of an impaired upper extremity. Technologies now in common use include robotics, functional electrical stimulation, and, to a lesser degree, transcranial magnetic stimulation and virtual reality. The data on pharmacological interventions are mixed but encouraging; it is hoped such treatments will directly stimulate brain tissue to recovery. Mitigation of factors preventing movement, such as spasticity, might also play a role. Research evaluating these motor recovery strategies finds them generally good at the movement level but somewhat less robust when looking at functional performance. It remains unclear whether inconsistent evidence for functional improvement is a matter of poor treatment efficacy or insensitive outcome measures.

Management of spasticity in children with cerebral palsy

Spasticity and other forms of muscle overactivity caused by cerebral palsy may impair function or ease of care or may cause discomfort or poor body image. The treatment program for a child with spasticity may include allied health therapy, exercise, casting, constraint-induced therapy, oral medications, chemodenervation, intrathecal baclofen, selective dorsal rhizotomy, and orthopedic surgery. Techniques may be combined for greater efficacy and better tailoring to the needs of the child. This article provides an overview of each approach, with a review of significant research findings in support of each.

Prevention of brisk hyperactive response during selective dorsal rhizotomy in children with spasticity: isoflurane versus sevoflurane maintenance anesthesia

In children with spasticity, deep tendon reflexes are hyperactive and even stimulation of normal dorsal rootlets can produce exaggerated full-strength, single-twitch responses in the muscles they innervate. This phenomenon is called the brisk hyperactive response (BHR). The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of 2 volatile anesthetics, isoflurane and sevoflurane, for suppressing the confounding effect of BHR during selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR) in children with spasticity. The subjects were 54 consecutive children of American Society of Anesthesiology physical status III who were scheduled for SDR. After tracheal intubation, each child was randomly assigned to Group I (isoflurane; n=27) or Group S (sevoflurane; n=27). There was no significant difference between the mean operation times in Groups I and S (200+/-40 vs. 220+/-35 minutes, respectively; p=0.0559). Thirteen patients in Group I (48.1%) and 5 in Group S (18.5%) exhibited BHR during stimulation of the dorsal rootlets (odds ratio 4.086; p=0.0418). Three of these 18 patients (2 in Group I and 1 in Group S) experienced hypertension and tachycardia simultaneously with BHR (odds ratio 4.086; p=1.0). The results suggest that sevoflurane is more effective at preventing BHR and might be a better choice for anesthetic management of children with spasticity undergoing SDR.

Does ketamine affect intraoperative electrophysiological monitoring in children undergoing selective posterior rhizotomy?

OBJECTIVE

Direct dorsal rootlet stimulation with intraoperative electrophysiological monitoring is an adjunct to clinical evaluation during selective posterior rhizotomy. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of ketamine on intraoperative electrophysiological monitoring during selective posterior rhizotomy. Specifically, we sought to determine if low dose ketamine given as part of the anesthesia was associated with changes in intraoperative electrophysiological monitoring in patients who underwent selective posterior rhizotomy.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was conducted using anesthetic records and electrophysiological records of 32 children who had intraoperative electrophysiological monitoring during selective posterior rhizotomy under general anesthesia. Administration and dosage of ketamine preceding the stimulation of dorsal roots was determined from the anesthetic record. A pediatric neurologist, blinded to patient, and to ketamine exposure, evaluated different electrophysiological criteria.

RESULTS

Eight children received ketamine and 24 did not receive it. The mean average dose of ketamine was 0.18 mg x kg(-1) (sd: 0.04). We did not find any statistically significant difference in intraoperative electrophysiological response between the ketamine and the control groups. However, we noted some trends: Administration of ketamine preceding the stimulation of dorsal roots was associated with a lower maximal threshold (2.7 mA vs 3.5 mA, P = 0.663) and root thresholds compared with children who did not receive ketamine. In addition, the train response following delivery of the suprastimulation tended to last longer with the presence of ketamine.

CONCLUSIONS

Administration of low dose ketamine preceding the stimulation of dorsal roots during selective posterior rhizotomy might be associated with lower maximal thresholds and a more sustained train response following stimulation. Physicians should be aware of this finding in order to avoid misinterpreting intraoperative electrophysiological monitoring.

Long term results of microsurgical dorsal root entry zonotomy for upper extremity spasticity

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of the present study is to assess the long-term results of microsurgical dorsal root entry zonotomy (MDT) for the treatment of medically intractable upper-extremity spasticity.

METHODS

The records of nine adult patients who underwent MDT by one operating neurosurgeon from March 1999 to June 2004 were retrospectively reviewed by another investigator who had no role in the management of these patients. In all patients, MDT was performed on all roots of the upper limb (from C5 to T1) for spasticity of the upper extremity. The degree of spasticity was measured by the Modified Ashworth Scale (grade 0-4). Severity of the pain level was determined using the Numeric Rating Scale (NRS, score 0-10). Also, patient satisfaction of the post-operative outcome was assessed.

RESULTS

Comparing the preoperative and postoperative spasticity using the Modified Ashworth Scale, we observed improvement in all patients, particularly in five of the nine patients (55.6%) who improved by three grades over an average of 66.4 months (range, 40-96). Regarding patient satisfaction, seven patients (77.8%) had affirmative results. None of the patients experienced severe, life-threatening, postoperative complications. We observed a decrease in the intensity of painful spasms to less than three scores as measured by NRS in all four patients with associated pain.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that MDT provides significant, long-term reduction of harmful spasticity and associated pain in the upper limbs.

Long-term survival enhanced by cordectomy in a patient with a spinal glioblastoma multiforme and paraplegia. Case report

Spinal glioblastomas multiforme (GBMs) are rare lesions of the central nervous system with a prognosis as poor as that of their intracranial counterpart. The authors present a case of a 50-year-old man with a GBM of the spinal cord treated with surgical removal of the mass and cordectomy after the onset of paraplegia. Six years later, the patient developed hepatitis C and received interferon therapy. Six months after the start of interferon therapy, magnetic resonance imaging revealed a right cerebellar mass pathologically consistent with a GBM. Despite aggressive treatment, the patient died 1 month later. Although intracranial dissemination of spinal GBMs has been reported, this case illustrates the longest reported interval between the occurrence of a spinal GBM and its intracranial dissemination. Thus, cordectomy should be considered as a reasonable alternative in patients with complete loss of neurological function at and below the level where they harbor a malignant spinal cord astrocytoma.

Retrospective review of multilevel spinal fusion combined with spinal cord transection for treatment of kyphoscoliosis in pediatric myelomeningocele patients

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective review of cases at a single institution from 1998 to 2005.

OBJECTIVE

The authors present their surgical experience, complications, and learned insight in 9 myelomeningocele children with kyphoscoliosis treated with combined spinal cord transection and spinal fusion.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Complication rates in spinal fusion for treatment of kyphoscoliosis in myelomeningocele patients are high. Spinal cord transection in combination with fusion can be an appropriate strategy in selected patients, but changes in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics that may accompany ligation of the distal CSF circulation are not well characterized.

METHODS

Demographic, clinical, and radiologic data were examined in 9 children with myelomeningocele level at or above T12 and no residual urologic function treated at our institution with spinal cord detethering and transection, and multilevel spinal fusion. Seven children underwent kyphectomy with posterior fusion only for severe gibbus deformities, while 2 had anterior and posterior fusions for severe kyphoscoliosis.

RESULTS

Follow-up of patients ranged from 4 to 92 months (mean, 37.8 months). Eight children (89%) experienced postoperative complications involving wound infection or skin breakdown. One child presented with a CSF leak. Two children (22%) required revision of their ventriculoperitoneal shunts. The average angle of kyphosis before surgery was 122.3 (range, 48 degrees -180 degrees ), and the average postoperative angle was 38.2 (range, 4 degrees -113 degrees ), with average correction being 81.9 degrees (range, 29 degrees -124). Average correction of scoliosis, if present, was 59.5 degrees (range, 35 degrees -92 degrees ).

CONCLUSION

Combined spinal cord transection and spinal fusion allowed an average correction of kyphosis by 81.9 degrees . The complication rate was 89%, with wound concerns being the most significant. Additionally, 22% of patients required shunt revision within 6 weeks of surgery. We attribute this to alteration of CSF dynamics resulting from loss of CSF absorption and flow-buffering capacity below the level of the spinal cord transection.

Selective dorsal rhizotomies in the treatment of spasticity related to cerebral palsy

RATIONALE

Selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR) is a surgical technique developed over the past decades to manage patients diagnosed with cerebral palsy suffering from spastic diplegia. It involves selectively lesioning sensory rootlets in an effort to maintain a balance between elimination of spasticity and preservation of function. Several recent long-term outcome studies have been published. In addition, shorter follow-up randomized controlled studies have compared the outcome of patients having undergone physiotherapy alone with those that received physiotherapy after selective dorsal rhizotomy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this account, we will discuss the rationale and outcome after SDR. The outcome is addressed in terms of the gross motor function measurement scale (GMFM), degree of elimination of spasticity, strength enhancement, range of motion, fine motor skills, activity of daily living, spastic hip, necessity for postoperative orthopedic procedures, bladder and sphincteric function, and finally possible early or late complications associated with the procedure.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that SDR is a safe procedure, which offers durable and significant functional gains to properly selected children with spasticity related to cerebral palsy.

Motor neuron inhibition-based gene therapy for spasticity

Spasticity is a condition resulting from excess motor neuron excitation, leading to involuntary muscle contraction in response to increased velocity of movement, for which there is currently no cure. Existing symptomatic therapies face a variety of limitations. The extent of relief that can be delivered by ablative techniques such as rhizotomy is limited by the potential for sensory denervation. Pharmacological approaches, including intrathecal baclofen, can be undermined by tolerance. One potential new approach to the treatment of spasticity is the control of neuromuscular overactivity through the delivery of genes capable of inducing synaptic inhibition. A variety of experiments in cell culture and animal models have demonstrated the ability of neural gene transfer to inhibit neuronal activity and suppress transmission. Similarly, enthusiasm for the application of gene therapy to neurodegenerative diseases of motor neurons has led to the development of a variety of strategies for motor neuron gene delivery. In this review, we discuss the limitations of existing spasticity therapies, the feasibility of motor neuron inhibition as a gene-based treatment for spasticity, potential inhibitory transgene candidates, strategies for control of transgene expression, and applicable motor neuron gene targeting strategies. Finally, we discuss future directions and the potential for gene-based motor neuron inhibition in therapeutic clinical trials to serve as an effective treatment modality for spasticity, either in conjunction with or as a replacement for presently available therapies.

Intraoperative muscle measurements reveal a relationship between contracture formation and muscle remodeling

Children with cerebral palsy often have spasticity of both the extensors and flexors, but how and why a flexion contracture of the wrist will develop during growth is not thoroughly understood. In order to understand the muscle adaptations that occur during contracture formation, the relationship between intraoperative sarcomere length and the extent of contracture was measured in 23 children (average age, 14.3 +/- 2.9 years) undergoing tendon transfers involving the flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU) or extensor carpi radialis brevis (ECRB) muscles. For both ECRB and FCU, sarcomere lengths measured intraoperatively were longer compared to sarcomere lengths predicted from a regression relationship obtained from "control" patients with radial nerve injury (P < 0.001). The most interesting aspect of the long FCU sarcomere lengths measured was that there was a highly significant correlation between the degree of contracture formation and intraoperative sarcomere length (r2 = 0.5, P < 0.005). These data clearly show that greater contracture severity is associated with longer intraoperative FCU sarcomere length. No such correlation was observed for the ECRB. The data suggest that the clinical presentation of the contracture is related to degree of FCU, but not ECRB adaptation, to the central nervous system lesion.

Percutaneous radiofrequency lesion adjacent to the dorsal root ganglion in the treatment of spasticity and pain in children with cerebral palsy

The use of percutaneous radiofrequency (RF) lesion adjacent to the dorsal root ganglion (RF-DRG) in the treatment of pain has been established for years. A relatively novel indication for RF-DRG treatment is spasticity in children with cerebral palsy. In this article the pathophysiology and management of spasticity is discussed with an emphasis on the role of RF-DRG. In the management of spasticity, RF-DRG could prove to be a little invasive treatment option with little adverse effects.

Image-Guided High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound for Conduction Block of Peripheral Nerves

The objective of our work has been to investigate the use of ultrasound image-guided high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) to non-invasively produce conduction block in rabbit sciatic nerves in vivo, a technique that could become a treatment of spasticity and pain. The work reported here involved the investigation of the duration of such conduction blocks after HIFU treatment and whether they resulted in axon degeneration. The right sciatic nerves of 12 rabbits were treated, under guidance of ultrasound imaging, with repeated 5-s applications of 3.2 MHz HIFU with in situ intensity of 1930 W/cm(2) (spatial-average, temporal-average) until conduction block was achieved. Survival endpoints were 0, 7, or 14 days after HIFU treatment, at which point the nerve conduction was assessed. Qualitative and quantitative histological analysis of nerve sections proximal and distal to the HIFU site was performed. Conduction block of all 12 nerves was achieved with average HIFU treatment time of 10.5+/-4.9 s (mean+/-SD). The volume of necrosis of adjacent muscle was measured to be 1.59+/-1.1 cm(3) (mean+/-SD). For all nerves, conduction block remained at the survival endpoint and the block resulted in degeneration of axons distal to the HIFU site, as confirmed by electrophysiological and histological methods. Potential clinical applications include treatment of spasticity in patients with spinal cord injury or pain in cancer patients.

Development of GABA-sensitive spasticity and rigidity in rats after transient spinal cord ischemia: a qualitative and quantitative electrophysiological and histopathological study

Transient spinal cord ischemia may lead to a progressive degeneration of spinal interneurons and subsequently to increased hind limb motor tone. In the present work we sought to characterize the rigidity and spasticity components of this altered motor function by: i) tonic electromyographic activity measured in gastrocnemius muscle before and after ischemia, ii) measurement of muscle resistance during the period of ankle flexion and corresponding changes in electromyographic activity, iii) changes in Hoffmann reflex, and, iv) motor evoked potentials. In addition the effect of intrathecal treatment with baclofen (GABAB receptor agonist; 1 microg), nipecotic acid (GABA uptake inhibitor; 300 microg) and dorsal L2-L5 rhizotomy on spasticity and rigidity was studied. Finally, the changes in spinal choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and vesicular glutamate transporter 2 and 1 (VGLUT2 and VGLUT1) expression were characterized using immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. At 3-7 days after ischemia an increase in tonic electromyographic activity with a variable degree of rigidity was seen. In animals with modest rigidity a velocity-dependent increase in muscle resistance and corresponding appearance in electromyographic activity (consistent with the presence of spasticity) was measured during ankle rotation (4-612 degrees /s rotation). Measurement of the H-reflex revealed a significant increase in Hmax/Mmax ratio and a significant loss of rate-dependent inhibition. In the same animals a potent increase in motor evoked potential amplitudes was measured and this change correlated positively with the increased H-reflex responses. Spasticity and rigidity were consistently present for a minimum of 3 months after ischemia. Intrathecal treatment with baclofen (GABA B receptor agonist) and nipecotic acid (GABA uptake inhibitor) provided a significant suppression of spasticity, rigidity, H-reflex or motor evoked potentials. Dorsal L2-L5 rhizotomy significantly decreased muscle resistance but had no effect on increased amplitudes of motor evoked potentials. Confocal analysis of spinal cord sections at 8 weeks-12 months after ischemia revealed a continuing presence of ChAT positive alpha-motoneurons, Ia afferents and VGLUT2 and VGLUT1-positive terminals but a selective loss of small presumably inhibitory interneurons between laminae V-VII. These data demonstrate that brief transient spinal cord ischemia in rat leads to a consistent development of spasticity and rigidity. The lack of significant suppressive effect of dorsal L2-L5 rhizotomy on motor evoked potentials response indicates that descending motor input into alpha-motoneurons is independent on Ia afferent couplings and can independently contribute to increased alpha-motoneuronal excitability. The pharmacology of this effect emphasizes the potent role of GABAergic type B receptors in regulating both the spasticity and rigidity.

Selective tibial neurotomy in the treatment of spastic equinovarus foot: a 2-year follow-up of three cases

OBJECTIVE

To objectively assess the decrease in spasticity and the improvement in gait after tibial nerve neurotomy performed to treat spastic equinovarus foot.

DESIGN

Before-after trial with a 2-yr follow-up. Three hemiplegic patients with spastic equinovarus foot were treated with a selective peripheral neurotomy of the tibial motor nerve branches (soleus, lateral and medial gastrocnemius and tibialis posterior nerves). Evaluation included clinical assessment of spasticity (Ashworth scale), maximal Hoffmann reflex (H(max))/compound muscle action potential (M(max)) ratio measurement, gait analysis, and muscle stiffness evaluation performed before and 2 mos, 1 yr, and 2 yrs after the neurotomy.

RESULTS

Spasticity, muscle stiffness, and H(max)/M(max) ratio decreased after neurotomy. The kinematic (ankle dorsal flexion and knee recurvatum) and kinetic variables (maximum ankle muscle moment and external work) of the gait were permanently improved after neurotomy. Interestingly, kinetic variables seemed to gradually improve with time after the neurotomy.

CONCLUSION

Tibial neurotomy is an effective and durable treatment for spastic equinovarus foot.

The Application of Surgical Cordectomy in the Management of an Intramedullary-Extramedullary Atypical Meningioma

BACKGROUND

The English literature describes only four cases of intraspinal tumors requiring surgical intervention in the form of cordectomy; none of these cases was for meningiomas. Intraspinal meningiomas, typically extramedullary-intradural, require treatment in the form of resection with dural margin excision. The presentation of an intramedullary atypical World Health Organization grade II meningioma is rare. The authors report a case of a transformed intramedullary-extramedullary atypical meningioma treated with cordectomy.

METHODS

The patient was a 65-year-old woman who presented with a recurrent thoracic meningioma status post three attempted resections, radiation therapy, and a trial of hydroxyurea chemotherapy. The patient presented paraplegic with reports of burning paresthesias bilaterally in her upper extremities 12 months after her third resection attempt.

RESULTS

Magnetic resonance imaging on this current presentation revealed a heterogeneously enhancing hypointense mass extending from T2 to T6. Extension of abnormal T2 signal within the cord superiorly to C7 was noted with a 1-cm enhancing extra-axial lesion at T10 and an extradural mass posteriorly T12 also noted. The patient underwent a T2-T7 laminectomy with a T2-T8 cordectomy. Two months postoperatively, the patient was doing well with no further deterioration in neurologic function.

CONCLUSIONS

This case highlights the viability of surgical cordectomy in the treatment of varying intramedullary processes under appropriate indications.

Multiple Sclerosis and Spasticity

Spasticity is a common impairment in MS. It can result in significant medical complications and is associated with increased disability. Treatment strategies include skilled rehabilitation strategies, neuromuscular blocks, oral agents, intrathecal management, and surgery. Rehabilitation strategies are central, whereas other strategies are added based on the level of impairment and functional loss. Treatment strategies for spasticity management are far from optimal and are complicated in MS as a result of lesions in the brain and the spinal cord. Pharmaceutical management in MS is complicated by the numerous secondary impairments in MS and its associated polypharmacy.Head-to-head studies of the various agents are rare. The studies that exist are small and do not point to any one strategy over another. Although management is difficult, it is essential for the health, functional status, and well-being of the individual who has MS. Providers must use well-developed clinical skills to arrive at optimal individualized treatment programs and monitor them frequently. For spasticity that is unresponsive, referral to a MS Center with a spasticity program is ideal.

Image-guided HIFU neurolysis of peripheral nerves to treat spasticity and pain

Spasticity, a major complication of central nervous system disorders, signified by uncontrollable muscle contractions, is very difficult to treat effectively. We report on the use of ultrasound (US) image-guided high-intensity focused US (HIFU) to target and suppress the function of the sciatic nerve complex of rabbits in vivo, as a possible treatment of spasticity. The image-guided HIFU device included a 3.2-MHz spherically curved transducer and an intraoperative imaging probe. A focal acoustic intensity of 1480 to 1850 W/cm(2), applied using a scanning method, was effective in achieving complete conduction block in 100% of 22 nerve complexes with HIFU treatment times of 36 +/- 14 s (mean +/- SD). Gross examination showed blanching of the nerve at the HIFU treatment site and lesion volumes of 2.8 +/- 1.4 cm(3) encompassing the nerve complex. Histologic examination indicated axonal demyelination and necrosis of Schwann cells as probable mechanisms of nerve block. With accurate localization and targeting of peripheral nerves using US imaging, HIFU could become a promising tool for the suppression of spasticity.