Piezoelectric response of scleral collagen

Piezoelectric Biomaterials Inspired by Nature for Applications in Biomedicine and Nanotechnology

Bioelectricity provides electrostimulation to regulate cell/tissue behaviors and functions. In the human body, bioelectricity can be generated in electromechanically responsive tissues and organs, as well as biomolecular building blocks that exhibit piezoelectricity, with a phenomenon known as the piezoelectric effect. Inspired by natural bio-piezoelectric phenomenon, efforts have been devoted to exploiting high-performance synthetic piezoelectric biomaterials, including molecular materials, polymeric materials, ceramic materials, and composite materials. Notably, piezoelectric biomaterials polarize under mechanical strain and generate electrical potentials, which can be used to fabricate electronic devices. Herein, a review article is proposed to summarize the design and research progress of piezoelectric biomaterials and devices toward bionanotechnology. First, the functions of bioelectricity in regulating human electrophysiological activity from cellular to tissue level are introduced. Next, recent advances as well as structure-property relationship of various natural and synthetic piezoelectric biomaterials are provided in detail. In the following part, the applications of piezoelectric biomaterials in tissue engineering, drug delivery, biosensing, energy harvesting, and catalysis are systematically classified and discussed. Finally, the challenges and future prospects of piezoelectric biomaterials are presented. It is believed that this review will provide inspiration for the design and development of innovative piezoelectric biomaterials in the fields of biomedicine and nanotechnology.

A folded π-system with supramolecularly oriented dipoles: single-component piezoelectric relaxor with NLO activity

Organic molecules with an active dipole moment have a natural propensity to align in an antiparallel fashion in the solid state, resulting in zero macroscopic polarization. This primary limitation makes the material unresponsive to switching with electric fields, mechanical forces, and to intense laser light. A single-component organic material that bestows macroscopic dipole-driven electro-mechanical and optical functions, e.g., piezoelectric, ferroelectric and nonlinear optical (NLO) activity, is unprecedented due to the design challenges imparted by crystal symmetry and dipole orientations. Herein we report a crystalline organic material that self-assembles with a polar order (P 1), and is endowed with a high piezoelectric coefficient (d 33-47 pm V-1), as well as ferroelectric and Debye-type relaxor properties. In addition, it shows second harmonic generation (SHG) activity, which is more than five times that of the benchmark potassium dihydrogen phosphate. Piezoelectric force microscopy (PFM) images validated electro-mechanical deformations. Piezoresponse force spectroscopy (PFS) studies confirmed a signature butterfly-like amplitude and a phase loop. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a folded supramolecular π-system that manifests unidirectionally oriented dipoles and exhibits piezoelectricity, ferroelectricity, and has excellent ability to generate second harmonic light. These findings can herald new design possibilities based on folded architectures to explore opto-, electro- and mechano-responsive multifaceted functions.

Effects of Electrical Stimulation on Articular Cartilage Regeneration with a Focus on Piezoelectric Biomaterials for Articular Cartilage Tissue Repair and Engineering

There is increasing evidence that chondrocytes within articular cartilage are affected by endogenous force-related electrical potentials. Furthermore, electrical stimulation (ES) promotes the proliferation of chondrocytes and the synthesis of extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules, which accelerate the healing of cartilage defects. These findings suggest the potential application of ES in cartilage repair. In this review, we summarize the pathogenesis of articular cartilage injuries and the current clinical strategies for the treatment of articular cartilage injuries. We then focus on the application of ES in the repair of articular cartilage in vivo. The ES-induced chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and its potential regulatory mechanism are discussed in detail. In addition, we discuss the potential of applying piezoelectric materials in the process of constructing engineering articular cartilage, highlighting the important advances in the unique field of tissue engineering.

The intrinsic piezoelectric properties of materials - a review with a focus on biological materials

Piezoelectricity, a linear electromechanical coupling, is of great interest due to its extensive applications including energy harvesters, biomedical, sensors, and automobiles. A growing amount of research has been done to investigate the energy harvesting potential of this phenomenon. Traditional piezoelectric inorganics show high piezoelectric outputs but are often brittle, inflexible and may contain toxic compounds such as lead. On the other hand, biological piezoelectric materials are biodegradable, biocompatible, abundant, low in toxicity and are easy to fabricate. Thus, they are useful for many applications such as tissue engineering, biomedical and energy harvesting. This paper attempts to explain the basis of piezoelectricity in biological and non-biological materials and research involved in those materials as well as applications and limitations of each type of piezoelectric material.

Piezoelectricity, a linear electromechanical coupling, is of great interest due to its extensive applications including energy harvesters, biomedical, sensors, and automobiles.

Biomolecular Piezoelectric Materials: From Amino Acids to Living Tissues

Biomolecular piezoelectric materials are considered a strong candidate material for biomedical applications due to their robust piezoelectricity, biocompatibility, and low dielectric property. The electric field has been found to affect tissue development and regeneration, and the piezoelectric properties of biological materials in the human body are known to provide electric fields by pressure. Therefore, great attention has been paid to the understanding of piezoelectricity in biological tissues and its building blocks. The aim herein is to describe the principle of piezoelectricity in biological materials from the very basic building blocks (i.e., amino acids, peptides, proteins, etc.) to highly organized tissues (i.e., bones, skin, etc.). Research progress on the piezoelectricity within various biological materials is summarized, including amino acids, peptides, proteins, and tissues. The mechanisms and origin of piezoelectricity within various biological materials are also covered.

Soft-Matter Nanotubes: A Platform for Diverse Functions and Applications

Self-assembled organic nanotubes made of single or multiple molecular components can be classified into soft-matter nanotubes (SMNTs) by contrast with hard-matter nanotubes, such as carbon and other inorganic nanotubes. To date, diverse self-assembly processes and elaborate template procedures using rationally designed organic molecules have produced suitable tubular architectures with definite dimensions, structural complexity, and hierarchy for expected functions and applications. Herein, we comprehensively discuss every functions and possible applications of a wide range of SMNTs as bulk materials or single components. This Review highlights valuable contributions mainly in the past decade. Fifteen different families of SMNTs are discussed from the viewpoints of chemical, physical, biological, and medical applications, as well as action fields (e.g., interior, wall, exterior, whole structure, and ensemble of nanotubes). Chemical applications of the SMNTs are associated with encapsulating materials and sensors. SMNTs also behave, while sometimes undergoing morphological transformation, as a catalyst, template, liquid crystal, hydro-/organogel, superhydrophobic surface, and micron size engine. Physical functions pertain to ferro-/piezoelectricity and energy migration/storage, leading to the applications to electrodes or supercapacitors, and mechanical reinforcement. Biological functions involve artificial chaperone, transmembrane transport, nanochannels, and channel reactors. Finally, medical functions range over drug delivery, nonviral gene transfer vector, and virus trap.

Degradable Piezoelectric Biomaterials for Wearable and Implantable Bioelectronics

Current bioelectronics are facing a paradigm shift from old-fashioned unrecyclable materials to green and degradable functional materials with desired biocompatibility. As an essential electromechanical coupling component in many bioelectronics, new piezoelectric materials are being developed with biodegradability, as well as desired mechanical and electromechanical properties for the next generation implantable and wearable bioelectronics. In this review, we provide an overview of the major advancements in biodegradable piezoelectric materials. Different natural (such as peptide, amino acids, proteins, cellulose, chitin, silk, collagen, and M13 phage) and synthetic piezoelectric materials (such as polylactic acid) are discussed to reveal the underlying electromechanical coupling mechanism at the molecular level, together with typical approaches to the alignment of orientation and polarization to boost their electromechanical performance. Meanwhile, in vivo and in vitro degradation manners of those piezoelectric materials are summarized and compared. Representative developments of typical electronic prototypes leveraging these materials are also discussed. At last, challenges toward practical applications are pointed out together with potential research opportunities that might be critical in this new materials research area.

Self-assembly of diphenylalanine peptide with controlled polarization for power generation

Peptides have attracted considerable attention due to their biocompatibility, functional molecular recognition and unique biological and electronic properties. The strong piezoelectricity in diphenylalanine peptide expands its technological potential as a smart material. However, its random and unswitchable polarization has been the roadblock to fulfilling its potential and hence the demonstration of a piezoelectric device remains lacking. Here we show the control of polarization with an electric field applied during the peptide self-assembly process. Uniform polarization is obtained in two opposite directions with an effective piezoelectric constant d₃₃ reaching 17.9 pm V⁻¹. We demonstrate the power generation with a peptide-based power generator that produces an open-circuit voltage of 1.4 V and a power density of 3.3 nW cm⁻². Devices enabled by peptides with controlled piezoelectricity provide a renewable and biocompatible energy source for biomedical applications and open up a portal to the next generation of multi-functional electronics compatible with human tissue.

Piezoelectricity in diphenylalanine peptide nanotubes (PNTs) suggests an avenue towards green piezoelectric devices. Here the authors show ‘smart' PNTs whose polarization can be controlled with an electric field, and a resultant power generator which harvests biomechanical energy with high power density.

Visualizing molecular polar order in tissues via electromechanical coupling

Electron microscopy (EM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) techniques have long been used to characterize collagen fibril ordering and alignment in connective tissues. These techniques, however, are unable to map collagen fibril polarity, i.e., the polar orientation that is directed from the amine to the carboxyl termini. Using a voltage modulated AFM-based technique called piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM), we show it is possible to visualize both the alignment of collagen fibrils within a tissue and the polar orientation of the fibrils with minimal sample preparation. We demonstrate the technique on rat tail tendon and porcine eye tissues in ambient conditions. In each sample, fibrils are arranged into domains whereby neighboring domains exhibit opposite polarizations, which in some cases extend to the individual fibrillar level. Uniform polarity has not been observed in any of the tissues studied. Evidence of anti-parallel ordering of the amine to carboxyl polarity in bundles of fibrils or in individual fibrils is found in all tissues, which has relevance for understanding mechanical and biofunctional properties and the formation of connective tissues. The technique can be applied to any biological material containing piezoelectric biopolymers or polysaccharides.

Strong piezoelectricity in bioinspired peptide nanotubes

We show anomalously strong shear piezoelectric activity in self-assembled diphenylalanine peptide nanotubes (PNTs), indicating electric polarization directed along the tube axis. Comparison with well-known piezoelectric LiNbO(3) and lateral signal calibration yields sufficiently high effective piezoelectric coefficient values of at least 60 pm/V (shear response for tubes of approximately 200 nm in diameter). PNTs demonstrate linear deformation without irreversible degradation in a broad range of driving voltages. The results open up a wide avenue for developing new generations of "green" piezoelectric materials and piezonanodevices based on bioactive tubular nanostructures potentially compatible with human tissue.

Electric device improves bonds of simplified etch-and-rinse adhesives

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated the effects of an electric field produced by a new device for the application of etch-and-rinse adhesives on demineralized dentin surfaces.

METHODS

Three simplified etch-and-rinse adhesives (Single Bond, Prime&Bond NT and One-Step) were applied with the electric device and compared with controls prepared with disposable sponges. Specimens were processed for microtensile bond strength test and nanoleakage investigation using high resolution SEM.

RESULTS

Microtensile testing revealed higher bond strengths (p<0.05) for all adhesives tested when electricity was used. Adhesive interfaces prepared with electric impulses exhibited very homogenous hybrid layers with minimal nanoleakage compared with the controls.

SIGNIFICANCE

The use of electricity produced by a new electronic device during the application of dentin adhesives may increase adhesive adaptation to the dentin substrate and improve dentin hybridization due to the substrate modifications induced by an electric field on the demineralized dentin organic matrix.

Piezoelectric and mechanical properties in bovine cornea

The piezoelectric coefficient (d(31)) and Young's modulus (E) were investigated as a function of degree of hydration for bovine cornea. The piezoelectric and mechanical responses observed were anisotropic, and d(31) decreased, whereas E increased with decreasing the degree of hydration. The anisotropic mechanical and electromechanical properties observed seem to be caused by oriented crystalline collagen fibrils. In addition, the loss of water molecules appears to decrease crystallinity (of the collagen) in the cornea. With dehydration of the cornea, a reduction in crystallinity and changes in hydrogen bonding were observed by wide-angle X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared measurements. The decrease of piezoelectricity in cornea during dehydration is most likely caused by the increase in modulus and the loss of order to a nonpiezoelectric phase in the collagen.

A study of piezoelectric and mechanical anisotropies of the human cornea

The piezoelectric and dynamic mechanical properties of human cornea have been investigated as a function of drying time. As expected, the piezoelectric coefficient, d(31), and the Young's modulus, Y, were found to be extremely sensitive to water content. d(31) decreased with dehydration of the corneal tissue and Y increased with dehydration. While these results are significant, the discovery of the unprecedented mechanical and electromechanical anisotropy exhibited by the cornea are the major findings of this study and indicate that the collagen fibrils comprising the cornea are highly oriented. The piezoelectric responses of corneas observed in this study are: diagonally cut samples starting at an average piezoelectric coefficient value of 2250 pC/N, followed by the vertically cut samples, with an average starting value of about 600 pC/N and finally the horizontally cut samples with an average starting value of about 200 pC/N.