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Negi R, Srivastava A, Srivastava AK, Vatsa P, Ansari UA, Khan B, Singh H, Pandeya A, Pant AB. Proteomic-miRNA Biomics Profile Reveals 2D Cultures of Human iPSC-Derived Neural Progenitor Cells More Sensitive than 3D Spheroid System Against the Experimental Exposure to Arsenic. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:5754-5770. [PMID: 38228842 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-024-03924-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
The iPSC-derived 3D models are considered to be a connective link between 2D culture and in vivo studies. However, the sensitivity of such 3D models is yet to be established. We assessed the sensitivity of the hiPSC-derived 3D spheroids against 2D cultures of neural progenitor cells. The sub-toxic dose of Sodium Arsenite (SA) was used to investigate the alterations in miRNA-proteins in both systems. Though SA exposure induced significant alterations in the proteins in both 2D and 3D systems, these proteins were uncommon except for 20 proteins. The number and magnitude of altered proteins were higher in the 2D system compared to 3D. The association of dysregulated miRNAs with the target proteins showed their involvement primarily in mitochondrial bioenergetics, oxidative and ER stress, transcription and translation mechanism, cytostructure, etc., in both culture systems. Further, the impact of dysregulated miRNAs and associated proteins on these functions and ultrastructural changes was compared in both culture systems. The ultrastructural studies revealed a similar pattern of mitochondrial damage, while the cellular bioenergetics studies confirm a significantly higher energy failure in the 2D system than to 3D. Such a higher magnitude of changes could be correlated with a higher amount of internalization of SA in 2D cultures than in 3D spheroids. Our findings demonstrate that a 2D culture system seems better responsive than a 3D spheroid system against SA exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Negi
- Systems Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research Vishvigyan Bhavan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, P.O. Box No. 80, Lucknow, 226 001, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201002, India
| | - A Srivastava
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226007, India
| | - A K Srivastava
- Systems Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research Vishvigyan Bhavan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, P.O. Box No. 80, Lucknow, 226 001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - P Vatsa
- Systems Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research Vishvigyan Bhavan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, P.O. Box No. 80, Lucknow, 226 001, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201002, India
| | - U A Ansari
- Systems Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research Vishvigyan Bhavan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, P.O. Box No. 80, Lucknow, 226 001, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201002, India
| | - B Khan
- Systems Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research Vishvigyan Bhavan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, P.O. Box No. 80, Lucknow, 226 001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - H Singh
- Systems Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research Vishvigyan Bhavan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, P.O. Box No. 80, Lucknow, 226 001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - A Pandeya
- Systems Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research Vishvigyan Bhavan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, P.O. Box No. 80, Lucknow, 226 001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - A B Pant
- Systems Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research Vishvigyan Bhavan, 31, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, P.O. Box No. 80, Lucknow, 226 001, Uttar Pradesh, India.
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201002, India.
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2
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Zhang N, Zhao L, Su Y, Liu X, Zhang F, Gao Y. Syringin Prevents Aβ 25-35-Induced Neurotoxicity in SK-N-SH and SK-N-BE Cells by Modulating miR-124-3p/BID Pathway. Neurochem Res 2021; 46:675-685. [PMID: 33471295 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-021-03240-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder disease, disturbing people's normal life. Syringin was mentioned to antagonize Amyloid-β (Aβ)-induced neurotoxicity. However, the action mechanism is still not fully elucidated. This study aimed to explore a molecular mechanism of syringin in defending Aβ-induced neurotoxicity. SK-N-SH and SK-N-BE cells were treated with amyloid β-protein fragment 25-35 (Aβ25-35) to induce cell neurotoxicity. The injury effects were distinguished by assessing cell viability and cell apoptosis using cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay and flow cytometry assay, respectively. The expression of Cleaved-caspase3 (Cleaved-casp3), B cell lymphoma/leukemia-2 (Bcl-2), Bcl-2 associated X protein (Bax) and BH3 interacting domain death agonist (BID) at the protein level was determined by western blot. The expression of miR-124-3p and BID was detected using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The interaction between miR-124-3p and BID was predicted by the online database starBase and confirmed by dual-luciferase reporter assay plus RNA pull-down assay. Aβ25-35 treatment inhibited cell viability and induced cell apoptosis, while the addition of syringin recovered cell viability and suppressed cell apoptosis. MiR-124-3p was significantly downregulated in Aβ25-35-treated SK-N-SH and SK-N-BE cells, and BID was upregulated. Nevertheless, the addition of syringin reversed their expression. BID was a target of miR-124-3p, and its downregulation partly prevented Aβ25-35-induced injuries. Syringin protected against Aβ25-35-induced neurotoxicity by enhancing miR-124-3p expression and weakening BID expression, and syringin strengthened the expression of miR-124-3p to diminish BID level. Syringin ameliorated Aβ25-35-induced neurotoxicity in SK-N-SH and SK-N-BE cells by regulating miR-124-3p/BID pathway, which could be a novel theoretical basis for syringin to treat AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Zhang
- Department of Geriatrics, Yantai Affiliated Hospital of Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Li Zhao
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital of Qingdao University, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Yan Su
- Medical Service, Yantai Affiliated Hospital of Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Xiaoliang Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yantai Affiliated Hospital of Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Feilong Zhang
- Public Health Division, Yantai Affiliated Hospital of Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, Shandong, China
| | - Yiwen Gao
- Department of Pharmacy, Yantai Affiliated Hospital of Binzhou Medical University, No. 717, Jinbu Street, MuPing District, Yantai, 264100, Shandong, China.
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3
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Schymanski EL, Baker NC, Williams AJ, Singh RR, Trezzi JP, Wilmes P, Kolber PL, Kruger R, Paczia N, Linster CL, Balling R. Connecting environmental exposure and neurodegeneration using cheminformatics and high resolution mass spectrometry: potential and challenges. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2019; 21:1426-1445. [PMID: 31305828 DOI: 10.1039/c9em00068b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Connecting chemical exposures over a lifetime to complex chronic diseases with multifactorial causes such as neurodegenerative diseases is an immense challenge requiring a long-term, interdisciplinary approach. Rapid developments in analytical and data technologies, such as non-target high resolution mass spectrometry (NT-HR-MS), have opened up new possibilities to accomplish this, inconceivable 20 years ago. While NT-HR-MS is being applied to increasingly complex research questions, there are still many unidentified chemicals and uncertainties in linking exposures to human health outcomes and environmental impacts. In this perspective, we explore the possibilities and challenges involved in using cheminformatics and NT-HR-MS to answer complex questions that cross many scientific disciplines, taking the identification of potential (small molecule) neurotoxicants in environmental or biological matrices as a case study. We explore capturing literature knowledge and patient exposure information in a form amenable to high-throughput data mining, and the related cheminformatic challenges. We then briefly cover which sample matrices are available, which method(s) could potentially be used to detect these chemicals in various matrices and what remains beyond the reach of NT-HR-MS. We touch on the potential for biological validation systems to contribute to mechanistic understanding of observations and explore which sampling and data archiving strategies may be required to form an accurate, sustained picture of small molecule signatures on extensive cohorts of patients with chronic neurodegenerative disorders. Finally, we reflect on how NT-HR-MS can support unravelling the contribution of the environment to complex diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma L Schymanski
- Environmental Cheminformatics Group, Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 6 Avenue du Swing, L-4367 Belvaux, Luxembourg.
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Harris G, Hogberg H, Hartung T, Smirnova L. 3D Differentiation of LUHMES Cell Line to Study Recovery and Delayed Neurotoxic Effects. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN TOXICOLOGY 2017; 73:11.23.1-11.23.28. [PMID: 28777440 PMCID: PMC5674809 DOI: 10.1002/cptx.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Current neurotoxicity testing and the study of molecular mechanisms in neurodegeneration in vitro usually focuses on acute exposures to compounds. 3D Lund human mesencephalic (LUHMES) cells allow long-term treatment or pulse exposure in combination with compound washout to study delayed neurotoxic effects as well as recovery and neurodegeneration pathways. In this unit we describe 3D LUHMES culture and characterization. Characterization of the model involves immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry, and qPCR measurements. Studying the delayed effects of compounds is more relevant to human exposures and neurodegenerative diseases with a strong genetic or environmental component. Most assays for molecular endpoints have been developed for monolayer cell culture and therefore need to be adapted for 3D models. In this unit, we further describe toxicological assays for molecular endpoints such as ATP levels, mitochondrial viability, and neurite outgrowth, which have been adapted for use in 3D LUHMES cultures. © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgina Harris
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Str. Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Helena Hogberg
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Str. Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Thomas Hartung
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Str. Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- University of Konstanz, 78457, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Lena Smirnova
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Str. Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Pamies D, Barreras P, Block K, Makri G, Kumar A, Wiersma D, Smirnova L, Zang C, Bressler J, Christian KM, Harris G, Ming GL, Berlinicke CJ, Kyro K, Song H, Pardo CA, Hartung T, Hogberg HT. A human brain microphysiological system derived from induced pluripotent stem cells to study neurological diseases and toxicity. ALTEX-ALTERNATIVES TO ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION 2016; 34:362-376. [PMID: 27883356 PMCID: PMC6047513 DOI: 10.14573/altex.1609122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Human in vitro models of brain neurophysiology are needed to investigate molecular and cellular mechanisms associated with neurological disorders and neurotoxicity. We have developed a reproducible iPSC-derived human 3D brain microphysiological system (BMPS), comprised of differentiated mature neurons and glial cells (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes) that reproduce neuronal-glial interactions and connectivity. BMPS mature over eight weeks and show the critical elements of neuronal function: synaptogenesis and neuron-to-neuron (e.g., spontaneous electric field potentials) and neuronal-glial interactions (e.g., myelination), which mimic the microenvironment of the central nervous system, rarely seen in vitro before. The BMPS shows 40% overall myelination after 8 weeks of differentiation. Myelin was observed by immunohistochemistry and confirmed by confocal microscopy 3D reconstruction and electron microscopy. These findings are of particular relevance since myelin is crucial for proper neuronal function and development. The ability to assess oligodendroglial function and mechanisms associated with myelination in this BMPS model provide an excellent tool for future studies of neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis and other demyelinating diseases. The BMPS provides a suitable and reliable model to investigate neuron-neuroglia function as well as pathogenic mechanisms in neurotoxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Pamies
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Paula Barreras
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,Division of Neuroimmunology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Katharina Block
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Georgia Makri
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Anupama Kumar
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,Division of Neuroimmunology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Daphne Wiersma
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Lenna Smirnova
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Ce Zang
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Joseph Bressler
- Hugo Moser Institute at the Kennedy Krieger, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Kimberly M Christian
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Georgina Harris
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Guo-Li Ming
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,The Solomon Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | | | - Kelly Kyro
- US Army Edgewood Chemical Biological Center, Aberdeen Proving Ground, USA
| | - Hongjun Song
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,The Solomon Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Carlos A Pardo
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,Division of Neuroimmunology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - Thomas Hartung
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Helena T Hogberg
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
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6
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Schmidt BZ, Lehmann M, Gutbier S, Nembo E, Noel S, Smirnova L, Forsby A, Hescheler J, Avci HX, Hartung T, Leist M, Kobolák J, Dinnyés A. In vitro acute and developmental neurotoxicity screening: an overview of cellular platforms and high-throughput technical possibilities. Arch Toxicol 2016; 91:1-33. [PMID: 27492622 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1805-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Neurotoxicity and developmental neurotoxicity are important issues of chemical hazard assessment. Since the interpretation of animal data and their extrapolation to man is challenging, and the amount of substances with information gaps exceeds present animal testing capacities, there is a big demand for in vitro tests to provide initial information and to prioritize for further evaluation. During the last decade, many in vitro tests emerged. These are based on animal cells, human tumour cell lines, primary cells, immortalized cell lines, embryonic stem cells, or induced pluripotent stem cells. They differ in their read-outs and range from simple viability assays to complex functional endpoints such as neural crest cell migration. Monitoring of toxicological effects on differentiation often requires multiomics approaches, while the acute disturbance of neuronal functions may be analysed by assessing electrophysiological features. Extrapolation from in vitro data to humans requires a deep understanding of the test system biology, of the endpoints used, and of the applicability domains of the tests. Moreover, it is important that these be combined in the right way to assess toxicity. Therefore, knowledge on the advantages and disadvantages of all cellular platforms, endpoints, and analytical methods is essential when establishing in vitro test systems for different aspects of neurotoxicity. The elements of a test, and their evaluation, are discussed here in the context of comprehensive prediction of potential hazardous effects of a compound. We summarize the main cellular characteristics underlying neurotoxicity, present an overview of cellular platforms and read-out combinations assessing distinct parts of acute and developmental neurotoxicology, and highlight especially the use of stem cell-based test systems to close gaps in the available battery of tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Béla Z Schmidt
- BioTalentum Ltd., Gödöllő, Hungary.,Stem Cell Biology and Embryology Unit, Department of Development and Regeneration, Stem Cell Institute Leuven, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Martin Lehmann
- BioTalentum Ltd., Gödöllő, Hungary.,Institute of Neurophysiology and Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Simon Gutbier
- Doerenkamp-Zbinden Chair for In Vitro Toxicology and Biomedicine, University of Konstanz, Constance, Germany
| | - Erastus Nembo
- BioTalentum Ltd., Gödöllő, Hungary.,Institute of Neurophysiology and Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Sabrina Noel
- Louvain Centre for Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Lena Smirnova
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Anna Forsby
- Swedish Toxicology Research Center (Swetox), Södertälje, Sweden.,Department of Neurochemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jürgen Hescheler
- Institute of Neurophysiology and Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Hasan X Avci
- BioTalentum Ltd., Gödöllő, Hungary.,Department of Medical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Thomas Hartung
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marcel Leist
- Doerenkamp-Zbinden Chair for In Vitro Toxicology and Biomedicine, University of Konstanz, Constance, Germany
| | | | - András Dinnyés
- BioTalentum Ltd., Gödöllő, Hungary. .,Molecular Animal Biotechnology Laboratory, Szent István University, Gödöllő, 2100, Hungary.
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Smirnova L, Harris G, Delp J, Valadares M, Pamies D, Hogberg HT, Waldmann T, Leist M, Hartung T. A LUHMES 3D dopaminergic neuronal model for neurotoxicity testing allowing long-term exposure and cellular resilience analysis. Arch Toxicol 2015; 90:2725-2743. [PMID: 26647301 PMCID: PMC5065586 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-015-1637-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Several shortcomings of current Parkinson’s disease (PD) models limit progress in identification of environmental contributions to disease pathogenesis. The conditionally immortalized cell line LUHMES promises to make human dopaminergic neuronal cultures more easily available, but these cells are difficult to culture for extended periods of time. We overcame this problem by culturing them in 3D with minor medium modifications. The 3D neuronal aggregates allowed penetration by small molecules and sufficient oxygen and nutrient supply for survival of the innermost cells. Using confocal microscopy, gene expression, and flow cytometry, we characterized the 3D model and observed a highly reproducible differentiation process. Visualization and quantification of neurites in aggregates was achieved by adding 2 % red fluorescent protein-transfected LUHMES cells. The mitochondrial toxicants and established experimental PD agents, rotenone and MPP+, perturbed genes involved in one-carbon metabolism and transsulfuration pathways (ASS1, CTH, and SHTM2) as in 2D cultures. We showed, for the first time in LUHMES, down-regulation of mir-7, a miRNA known to target alpha-synuclein and to be involved in PD. This was observed as early as 12 h after rotenone exposure, when pro-apoptotic mir-16 and rotenone-sensitive mir-210 were not yet significantly perturbed. Finally, washout experiments demonstrated that withdrawal of rotenone led to counter-regulation of mir-7 and ASS1, CTH, and SHTM2 genes. This suggests a possible role of these genes in direct cellular response to the toxicant, and the model appears to be suitable to address the processes of resilience and recovery in neurotoxicology and Parkinson’s disease in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Smirnova
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.
| | - G Harris
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - J Delp
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - M Valadares
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - D Pamies
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - H T Hogberg
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | - T Waldmann
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - M Leist
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - T Hartung
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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