Twice-daily fractionation of external irradiation with brachytherapy in bulky carcinoma of the cervix. Phase I/II study of the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 88-05

Radiation therapy oncology group gynecologic oncology working group: comprehensive results

The purpose of this report was to comprehensively describe the activities of the Gynecologic Oncology Working Group within the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG). Clinical trials will be reviewed as well as translational science and ancillary activities. During the past 40 years, a myriad of clinical trials have been performed within the RTOG with the aim of improving overall survival (OS) and decreasing morbidity in women with cervical or endometrial cancer. Major study questions have included hyperbaric oxygen, neutron radiotherapy, altered fractionation, hypoxic cell sensitization, chemosensitization, and volume-directed radiotherapy.RTOG 7920 demonstrated improvement in OS in patients with stages IB through IIB cervical carcinoma receiving prophylactic para-aortic irradiation compared to pelvic radiation alone. RTOG 9001 demonstrated that cisplatin and 5-FU chemoradiotherapy to the pelvis for advanced cervix cancer markedly improved OS compared to extended field radiotherapy alone. More recent trials have used radioprotectors, molecular-targeted therapy, and intensity-modulated radiation therapy. Ancillary studies have developed clinical target volume atlases for research protocols and routine clinical use. Worldwide practice patterns have been investigated in cervix, endometrial, and vulvar cancer through the Gynecologic Cancer Intergroup. Translational studies have focused on immunohistochemical markers, changes in gene expression, and miRNA patterns impacting prognosis.The RTOG gynecologic working group has performed clinical trials that have defined the standard of care, improved survival, and added to our understanding of the biology of cervical and endometrial cancers.

Chemotherapy in the primary treatment of cervical carcinoma

Two major treatment modalities in cervical cancer include radiotherapy and surgery. In an attempt to improve the outcome, these modalities have been increasingly supplemented by chemotherapy. Chemotherapy can be combined with local therapies in various sequences. Of the two possible strategies using chemotherapy and radiotherapy (sequential or concomitant), the latter seems to be more effective. Platinum-based regimens applied concurrently with both definitive and post-operative radiation therapy were demonstrated to provide survival benefit in five of the six recently published randomised trials. The positive impact of chemotherapy added to radiotherapy has also been shown in a meta-analysis including 1894 patients in 19 randomised studies. This strategy, however, is accompanied by increased early toxicity. The benefit of chemotherapy applied prior to surgery remains debatable. The role of new cytotoxic and biological substances, as well as agents combating tumour hypoxia, warrants further clinical investigation.

Concurrent weekly cisplatin and radiotherapy in routine management of cervical cancer: a report on patient compliance and acute toxicity

PURPOSE

To evaluate patient compliance and acute toxicity accompanying concurrent weekly cisplatin and radiotherapy (RT) in the routine management of cervical cancer.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Locally advanced or high-risk early-stage cervical cancer patients treated with RT and concurrent weekly cisplatin at a dose of 40 mg/m(2) i.v. (maximum dose, 70 mg) for five cycles. Definitive RT included whole pelvis external beam RT to the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements reference dose of 40 Gy plus a 10-Gy boost to the parametrium and two brachytherapy applications of 20 Gy to point A each. Postoperative RT consisted of pelvic external beam RT to the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements reference dose of 50 Gy and one brachytherapy application of 30 Gy at a depth of 0.5 cm from the applicator surface.

RESULTS

Included in this analysis were 112 consecutive cervical cancer patients treated at one institution with concurrent cisplatin and RT between May 1999 and September 2002. The median age was 48 years (range, 28-79 years). Definitive RT was administered to 57 International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics "bulky" Stage IB or IIB-IVA patients, and 53 patients underwent postoperative RT; 2 patients underwent RT for stump carcinoma. All but 2 patients (both administered definitive RT) completed RT. A total of 454 cisplatin cycles were administered (median 4 cycles/patient, range 1-6). Overall, 74% of patients received at least four cycles of cisplatin. The planned five cisplatin cycles were administered to 50 patients (45%); 42% were irradiated definitively and 47% postoperatively. The full and timely planned cisplatin dose was administered to 29 patients (26%). For 29% of patients, the interval between cycles was prolonged because of toxicity (n = 11; 10%) or for reasons not related to toxicity (n = 10; 9%). Of the 112 patients, 62 (55%) did not undergo the planned five cycles of cisplatin because of treatment toxicity (n = 35; 31%) or noncompliance with the treatment schedule because of delayed administration of the first cycle or omission of a cycle for reasons other than toxicity (n = 23; 21%). The most common side effects resulting in chemotherapy discontinuation included GI complications (n = 7) and impaired renal function (n = 5). Of the 112 patients, 49 (44%) experienced Grade 1 or 2 leukopenia and 6 (5%) Grade 3 or 4 leukopenia.

CONCLUSION

Our results show that pelvic RT combined with weekly cisplatin in cervical cancer patients is accompanied by considerable acute toxicity. Furthermore, a number of patients were unable to comply with the treatment schedule owing to reasons unrelated to treatment toxicity. Thus, administration of the full chemotherapy dose may be difficult, although the delivery of planned RT was generally not compromised. Additional follow-up is needed to assess the late toxicity of combined modality treatment.

Long-term follow-up of RTOG 88-05: twice-daily external irradiation with brachytherapy for carcinoma of the cervix

PURPOSE

To evaluate the efficacy and toxicity of twice-daily external irradiation to the pelvis with brachytherapy for carcinoma of the cervix in a long-term follow-up study.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

This study was designed to administer twice-daily irradiation doses of 1.2 Gy to the pelvis, 5 d/wk. Radiotherapy also included one or two low-dose-rate intracavitary implants, to deliver a total minimal dose of 85 Gy to point A and 65 Gy to the lateral pelvic lymph nodes.

RESULTS

Eighty-one patients with clinical Stage IB-IVA carcinoma of the cervix were enrolled in this prospective, single arm, Phase I/II study. Hyperfractionated irradiation was completed in 88%. Brachytherapy was given in two implants in 46% and in one implant in 54%. Six patients had acute Grade 3 toxicities. The cumulative rate of Grade 3 and 4 late effects for patients with Stage IB2, IIA, and IIB disease was 7% at 3 years, 7% at 5 years, and 10% at 8 years. For patients with Stage III and IVA disease, the rate of late toxicities (Grades 3 and 4) was 7% at 3 years and 12% at 5 years. The site of first failure was in the pelvis in 41%, para-aortic or supraclavicular lymph nodes in 6%, and other distant metastatic sites in 14%. The absolute survival rate was 61% at 3 years, 48% at 5 years, and 45% at 8 years. The disease-free survival rate was 43% at 3 years, 38% at 5 years, and 33% at 8 years.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that, combined with brachytherapy, hyperfractionated irradiation to total parametrial doses about 10% greater than doses administered with standard fractionation pelvic irradiation was tolerated and at least appears to be as effective as standard fractionation pelvic irradiation.

Long-term follow-up of RTOG 92-10: cervical cancer with positive para-aortic lymph nodes

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the late toxicity and efficacy of twice-daily external irradiation to the pelvis and lumbar para-aortic region with brachytherapy and concurrent chemotherapy for carcinoma of the cervix with positive para-aortic lymph nodes.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This study was designed to administer twice-daily radiation doses of 1.2 Gy to the pelvis and lumbar para-aortic lymph nodes (simultaneously) at 4-6-h intervals, 5 days per week. The total external radiation doses were 24-48 Gy to the whole pelvis, 12-36 Gy parametrial boost, and 48 Gy to the lumbar para-aortic region with an additional boost to a total dose 54-58 Gy to the positive para-aortic lymph node(s). One or two intracavitary implants were performed to deliver a minimum total dose of 85 Gy to point A. Cisplatin (75 mg/m(2); Days 1, 22, and 43) and 5-fluorouracil (1,000 mg/m(2)/24 h x 4 consecutive days, beginning on Days 1, 22, and 43) were given for two or three cycles.

RESULTS

Thirty patients with clinical Stages I-IV carcinoma of the cervix with biopsy-proven para-aortic lymph node metastases were enrolled in this study. Hyperfractionated external irradiation was completed in 87% (26 of 30). Brachytherapy was given in two implants to 47% (14 of 30) and in one implant to 33% (10 of 30); 13% (4 of 30) did not receive brachytherapy, 1 patient had three implants, and 1 had five high-dose-rate implants. Radiotherapy was completed per protocol in 70%. Three cycles of chemotherapy were given to 23% (7 of 30); 73% (22 of 30) received two cycles, and 1 patient did not receive chemotherapy. The acute toxicity from chemotherapy was Grade 1 in 3%, Grade 2 in 17%, Grade 3 in 48%, and Grade 4 in 28%. Acute toxicity from radiotherapy was Grade 1 in 7%, Grade 2 in 34%, Grade 3 in 21%, and Grade 4 in 28%. Late toxicity was Grade 1 in 10%, Grade 2 in 17%, Grade 3 in 7%, and Grade 4 in 17%. Grade 5 toxicity occurred in 1 patient during the course of therapy, but none had a late Grade 5 toxicity. The median follow-up time for the 7 patients alive at the time of last follow-up was 57 months. The overall survival estimates were 46% at 2 years and 29% at 4 years. The probability of local-regional failure was 40% at 1 year and 50% at 2 and 3 years. The probability of disease failure at any site was 46% at 1 year, 60% at 2 years, and 63% at 3 years.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that twice-daily external irradiation to the pelvis and lumbar para-aortic region with brachytherapy and concurrent chemotherapy resulted in an unacceptably high rate (17%, 5 of 29) of Grade 4 late toxicity. One patient died of acute complications of therapy. The survival estimates seem no better than standard fractionation irradiation without chemotherapy.

The feasibility study on continuous 7-day-a-week external beam irradiation in locally advanced cervical cancer: a report on acute toxicity

PURPOSE

To evaluate the feasibility and toxicity of continuous 7-day-a-week pelvic irradiation with no breaks between external beam irradiation and intracavitary applications.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Between November 1998 and December 1999, 30 patients with FIGO Stage IIB or IIIB cervical cancer were treated with continuous 7-day-a-week pelvic irradiation, to the total Manchester point B dose of 40.0-57.6 Gy. The first 13 patients (group A) were applied a daily tumor dose of 1.6 Gy and the remaining 17 patients (group B)-10.8 Gy. One or two immediate brachytherapy applications (point A dose 10-20 Gy, each) were performed in 28 cases.

RESULTS

Two patients did not complete the irradiation due to apparent early progression of disease during the irradiation. Of the remaining 28 evaluable patients 11 (39%) completed treatment within the prescribed overall treatment time and 17 had unplanned treatment breaks. For the latter group overall treatment time ranged from 103 to 122% (mean 114%) and from 103 to 197% (mean 138%) of the planned treatment time for group A and B, respectively. The majority of patients experienced acute toxicity. Severe toxicity (EORTC/RTOG grade 3 and 4), predominantly gastrointestinal, occurred in 5 of the 13 patients in group A, and in 7 of 17 patients in group B.

CONCLUSION

The studied regimen was accompanied by considerable toxicity, hindering delivery of irradiation within planned treatment time.

High-dose-rate brachytherapy in the treatment of uterine cervix cancer. Analysis of dose effectiveness and late complications

PURPOSE

This retrospective analysis aims to report results of patients with cervix cancer treated by external beam radiotherapy (EBR) and high-dose-rate (HDR) brachytherapy.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

From September 1992 to December 1996, 138 patients with FIGO Stages II and III and mean age of 56 years were treated. Median EBR to the whole pelvis was 45 Gy in 25 fractions. Parametrial boost was performed in 93% of patients, with a median dose of 14.4 Gy. Brachytherapy with HDR was performed during EBR or following its completion with a dose of 24 Gy in four weekly fractions of 6 Gy to point A. Median overall treatment time was of 60 days. Patient age, tumor stage, and overall treatment time were variables analyzed for survival and local control. Cumulative biologic effective dose (BED) at rectal and bladder reference points were correlated with late complications in these organs and dose of EBR at parametrium was correlated with small bowel complications.

RESULTS

Median follow-up time was 38 months. Overall survival, disease-free survival, and local control at 5 years was 53.7%, 52.7%, and 62%, respectively. By multivariate and univariate analysis, overall treatment time up to 50 days was the only statistically significant adverse variable for overall survival (p = 0.003) and actuarial local control (p = 0.008). The 5-year actuarial incidence of rectal, bladder, and small bowel late complications was 16%, 11%, and 14%, respectively. Patients treated with cumulative BED at rectum points above 110 Gy(3) and at bladder point above 125 Gy(3) had a higher but not statistically significant 5-year actuarial rate of complications at these organs (18% vs. 12%, p = 0.49 and 17% vs. 9%, p = 0.20, respectively). Patients who received parametrial doses larger than 59 Gy had a higher 5-year actuarial rate of complications in the small bowel; however, this was not statistically significant (19% vs. 10%, p = 0.260).

CONCLUSION

This series suggests that 45 Gy to the whole pelvis combined with four fractions of 6 Gy to point A with HDR brachytherapy is an effective and safe fractionation schedule in the treatment of Stages II and III cervix cancer if realized up to 50 days. To decrease the small bowel complications, we decreased the superior border of the parametrial fields to the S2-S3 level and the total dose to 54 Gy.

Hyperfractionated radiation therapy plus chemotherapy in locally advanced cervical cancer: results of two phase I dose-escalation Gynecologic Oncology Group trials

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this study were to assess the early and late toxicities of multiple-daily-fraction whole pelvic radiation plus concurrent chemotherapy with either hydroxyurea or 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)/cisplatin and to determine the maximum tolerated external radiation dose in conjunction with brachytherapy, when given with either of these drug regimens, as treatment for locally advanced carcinoma of the cervix.

METHODS

The first study (GOG 8801) of 38 patients utilized hydroxyurea as a single oral dose of 80 mg/kg to a maximum of 6 g at least 2 h prior to a radiation treatment twice every week. In the second study (GOG 8901) of 30 patients, cisplatin and 5-FU were used concomitantly with radiotherapy. Fifty milligrams per square meter of cisplatin was administered on days 1 and 17 of external radiation. 5-FU was given by continuous intravenous infusion at a dose of 1000 mg/m(2)/day for 4 consecutive days on days 2, 3, 4, 5, and 18, 19, 20, and 21 of external radiation therapy. Both studies utilized external radiation given by an accelerated hyperfractionated regimen of 1.2 Gy per fraction, two fractions per day. All patients were treated 5 days per week with a minimum of 4 h between fractions.

RESULTS

Acute toxicity was manageable on both protocols but nausea, vomiting, and myelosuppression were more severe with hydroxyurea. Chronic toxicity was primarily enteric and appeared to be dose-related. There was no obvious correlation seen between pelvic failure rates and the radiation dose or between the chemotherapy regimens used.

CONCLUSIONS

The defined maximal tolerated dose of whole pelvic radiation was 57.6 Gy in 48 fractions which could be delivered in a hyperfractionated setting with concomitant chemotherapy, followed by brachytherapy. Follow-up is now sufficient that further adverse events should be rare.

Radiation Therapy Oncology Group clinical trials for carcinoma of the cervix

Grigsby PW. Radiation Therapy Oncology Group clinical trials for carcinoma of the cervix. The purpose of this paper is to review the primary data of the clinical trials performed by the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) for patients with carcinoma of the uterine cervix. The trials, their strengths, limitations, and the implications of the results are discussed. During the past 25 years there have been several clinical trials performed by the RTOG to test various hypotheses for improving local control and survival for patients with carcinoma of the uterine cervix. The major research themes that have been appraised are the use of hyperbaric oxygen, altered fractionation radiotherapy, hypoxic cell sensitization, chemo-sensitization, prophylactic paraaortic irradiation, and neutron radiotherapy. There are two general research themes. The initial RTOG trials for cervical cancer attempted to address the issues of tumor volume and hypoxic cells while the latter studies addressed these issues and the issue of micrometastatic disease. The phase III clinical trials performed by the RTOG have not demonstrated a local control or survival advantage in the experimental arm with the use of hyperbaric oxygen, split-course radiotherapy, hypoxic cell sensitization, or neutron radiotherapy. Acceptable toxicity and efficacy results were shown in phase II studies evaluating twice-daily irradiation and chemo-sensitization. The positive phase III trials were RTOG 79-20 which evaluated prophylactic paraaortic irradiation in patients with bulky stages IB, IIA, and IIB disease, and RTOG 90-01 which evaluated concurrent chemotherapy. Results of more recent clinical trials are pending their completion.

Hyperfractionation in carcinoma of the cervix: tumor control and late bowel complications

PURPOSE

Hyperfractionation has been advocated to improve local tumor control by increasing radiation dose without increasing late normal tissue complications. The aim of this study was to determine if hyperfractionation decreased late bowel complications.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Thirty patients with Stage II and III cervical cancer were randomized to receive either hyperfractionation or conventional fractionation. Patients were followed for 5 years and monitored for tumor control, recurrence, and bowel complications. The relative risks of tumor control and bowel complications were computed at 1 year and 5 years of follow-up. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were plotted to determine probabilities of being tumor-free and bowel complication-free.

RESULTS

There were 15 patients in each group. At 1 year of follow-up, 2 patients in the hyperfractionation group (13%) and 7 patients in the conventional treatment group (45%) had tumor (relative risk [RR] 0.3; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.1, 1.1; p = 0.054). Delayed bowel complications were seen in 8 patients in the hyperfractionation group and 1 patient in the conventional treatment group (RR 7.5; 95% CI 1.1, 52; p = 0.014). At 5 years, 2 patients in the hyperfractionation group and 8 patients in the conventional treatment group had tumor (RR 0.3; 95% CI 0.1, 1.1; p = 0.04). Delayed bowel complications (Grades 2 and 3) occurred in 9 women in the hyperfractionation group and 2 patients in the conventional group (RR 5.4; 95% CI 1.5, 19.5; p = 0.0006). Kaplan-Meier analysis showed that the hyperfractionation group had significantly more bowel complications over the 5 years of follow-up (p = 0.024).

CONCLUSION

Hyperfractionation may result in better tumor control both at 1 year and at 5 years following treatment of cervical cancer. However, hyperfractionation could lead to increased late bowel complications and must be used judiciously in the treatment of cervical cancer.

Accelerated hyperfractionated radiotherapy for locally advanced cervix cancer

PURPOSE

A phase II trial was designed to evaluate the toxicity and outcome of patients with locally advanced cervix cancer treated with accelerated hyperfractionated radiotherapy (AHFX).

METHODS AND MATERIALS

In this prospective trial, AHFX doses of 1.25 Gy were administered twice daily at least 6 hours apart to a total pelvic dose of 57.5 Gy. A booster dose was then administered via either low-dose rate brachytherapy or external beam therapy to a smaller volume. All patients were accrued and treated at Peter MacCallum Cancer Institute (PMCI) between 1986 until April 1991.

RESULTS

Sixty-one eligible patients were enrolled in this protocol; 2 (3.2%) had Stage IIB; 42 (68.9%) had Stage III; 8 (13.1%) had Stage IV and 9 (14.8%) had recurrent cervical cancer. Fifty-two patients (85%) completed the planned external beam without a treatment break. Thirty patients had acute toxicity that required regular medication. One patient died of acute treatment related toxicity. Fifty-five patients received booster therapy: 45 with intrauterine brachytherapy, 6 with interstitial brachtherapy, and 4 with external beam. The median follow-up of surviving patients was 6 years. Overall 5-year survival is 27% and 5-year relapse free survival is 36%. Nineteen patients died with pelvic disease and the actuarial local control rate was 66%. There were 8 severe late complications observed in 7 patients. Seven required surgical intervention (an actuarial rate of 27%). Five patients also required total hip replacement.

CONCLUSIONS

The local control rate was favorable compared with other series that have used standard fractionation, although overall survival remained similar. The severe late complication rate was high for this protocol and higher than similar protocols reported in the literature.

Iridium-192 transperineal interstitial brachytherapy for locally advanced or recurrent gynecological malignancies

PURPOSE

To assess treatment outcome for patients with locally advanced or recurrent gynecological malignancies treated with continuous low-dose-rate (LDR) remote afterloading brachytherapy using the Martinez Universal Perineal Interstitial Template (MUPIT).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Between 7/85 and 6/94, 69 patients with either locally advanced or recurrent malignancies of the cervix, endometrium, vagina, or female urethra were treated by 5 different physicians using the MUPIT with (24 patients) or without (45 patients) interstitial hyperthermia. Fifty-four patients had no prior treatment with radiation and received a combination of external beam irradiation (EBRT) and an interstitial implant. The combined median dose was 71 Gy (range 56-99 Gy), median EBRT dose was 39 Gy (range 30-74 Gy), and the median implant dose was 32 Gy (range 17-40 Gy). Fifteen patients with prior radiation treatment received an implant alone. The total median dose including previous EBRT was 91 Gy (range 70-130 Gy) and the median implant dose was 35 Gy (range 25-55 Gy).

RESULTS

With a median follow-up of 4.7 yr in survivors, the 3-yr actuarial local control (LC), disease-specific survival (DSS), and overall survival (OS) for all patients was 60%, 55%, and 41% respectively. The clinical complete response rate was 78% and in these patients the 3-year actuarial LC, DSS, and OS was 78%, 79%, and 63% respectively. On univariate analysis for local control, disease volume and hemoglobin were found to be statistically significant. On multivariate analysis, however, only disease volume remained significant (p = 0.011). There was no statistically significant difference in local control whether patients had received any prior treatment with radiation (p = 0.34), had recurrent disease (p = 0.13), or which physician performed the implant (p = 0.45). The grade 4 complication rate (small bowel obstruction requiring surgery, fistulas, soft tissue necrosis) for all patients was 14%. With a dose rate less than 70 cGy/hour, the grade 4 complication rate was 3% vs. 24% with dose rate > or = 70 cGy/hour (p = 0.013).

CONCLUSION

Patients with locally advanced or recurrent gynecological malignancies treated with the remote afterloader LDR MUPIT applicator can expect reasonable rates of local control that are not operator-dependent. Complication rates with this approach are acceptable and appear to be related to the dose rate.

Combined low-dose-rate brachytherapy and external beam radiation for cervical cancer: experience over ten years

Cervical cancer was treated with a combination of external beam and intracavitary radiation during a 10-year period at Wayne State University. Data were collected for 216 patients treated radically with external beam radiation (EBRT) and low-dose-rate brachytherapy for cervical cancer between 1980 and 1991 at Wayne State University. Patient distribution by stage was IB, 20.8%; IIA, 7.4%; IIB, 26.9%; IIIA, 1.8%; IIIB, 40.7%; and IVA, 2.3 %. Survival curves were constructed using Kaplan-Meier methods and differences between groups were tested for significance using the log-rank test. Multivariate analysis was done using the Cox proportional hazards model. With a median follow-up of 114 months, actuarial disease-free survival for all patients was 60% at 5 years and 55% at 10 years. Actuarial 5-year survival for Stage IB was 79%; for Stage II, 59%; and for Stage III, 53%. There were 14/216 (6%) of patients with severe late complications. On univariate analysis, race was found to be statistically significant, with Caucasian patients having better survival than African American (P = 0.03). The survival for patients treated in shorter overall times was significantly higher (P<0.001), especially with treatment completion in under 58 days. The stepwise Cox multivariate analysis provided the following significant results: race (African American vs. Caucasian; P = 0.04, RR = 1.6), Stage (II vs. I, P = 0.004, RR = 2.6), Stage (III vs. I; P = 0.004, RR = 2.5), and overall treatment time (P = 0.006, RR = 1.62). Rates of local control, survival, and complications among women treated with combined external beam and intracavitary radiation for cervix cancer were similar to those of prior retrospective studies.

Twice-daily fractionation of external irradiation with brachytherapy and chemotherapy in carcinoma of the cervix with positive para-aortic lymph nodes: Phase II study of the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 92-10

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the toxicity and efficacy of twice-daily external irradiation to the pelvis and para-aortics with brachytherapy and concurrent chemotherapy for carcinoma of the cervix with positive para-aortic lymph nodes.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

This study was designed to administer twice-daily radiation doses of 1.2 Gy to the pelvis and para-aortics at 4- to 6-h intervals, 5 days per week. The total external radiation doses were 24 to 48 Gy to the whole pelvis, 12 to 36 Gy parametrial boost, and 48 Gy to the para-aortics with an additional boost to a total dose of 54 to 58 Gy to the known metastatic para-aortic site. One or two intracavitary applications were performed to deliver a total minimum dose of 85 Gy to point A. Cisplatin (75 mg/m2, days 1 and 22) and 5-FU (1000 mg/m2/24 h x 4 days; days 1 and 22) were given for two or three cycles.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine patients with clinical Stages I to IV carcinoma of the cervix with biopsy-proven para-aortic lymph nodes were enrolled in this study. Hyperfractionated external radiotherapy was completed in 86% (25 of 29). Brachytherapy was given in two applications to 48% (14 of 29), 31% (9 of 29) had one intracavitary application, 14% (4 of 29) had no brachytherapy, one had three applications, and one had five HDR applications. Radiotherapy was completed per protocol in 69%. Three courses of chemotherapy were given to 24% (7 of 29), 72% (21 of 29) received two courses, and one patient did not receive chemotherapy. The acute toxicity from chemotherapy was Grade 1 in 3%, Grade 2 in 17%, Grade 3 in 48%, and Grade 4 in 28%. Radiotherapy toxicity was Grade 1 in 7%, Grade 2 in 34%, Grade 3 in 21%, and Grade 4 in 28%. One Grade 5 toxicity occurred and the patient died from a myocardial infarction from chemotherapy and radiotherapy colitis during her course of therapy. The median follow-up time was 18.9 months. The overall survival estimates were 59% at 1 year and 47% at 2 years. The probability of local-regional failure was 38% at 1 year and 49% at 2 years. The probability of disease failure at any site was 45% at 1 year and 59% at 2 years.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that twice-daily external irradiation to the pelvis and para-aortics with brachytherapy and concurrent chemotherapy resulted in an unacceptably high rate (31%, 9 of 29) of Grade 4 nonhematologic toxicity. One patient died from complications of therapy. Radiotherapy was completed per protocol in 69%. The survival estimates appear no better than standard fractionation radiotherapy without chemotherapy. Additional follow-up is necessary for long-term survival estimates.

The clinical implications of hydronephrosis and the level of ureteral obstruction in stage IIIB cervical cancer

PURPOSE

There are two criteria for the diagnosis of Stage IIIB cervical cancer in the FIGO staging system: tumor fixation to the pelvic side wall and/or the presence of hydronephrosis due to tumor. However, we often encounter hydronephrosis without tumor fixed to the pelvic side wall or the level of ureteral obstruction not corresponding to the main tumor mass in the pelvis. The clinical implication of these phenomena remains unclear. We investigated the Stage IIIB population treated at the Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology and hypothesized that, if hydronephrosis presents without tumor fixation to the pelvic side wall or if the level of ureteral obstruction is above the main pelvic tumor mass, it most likely resulted from external compression of ureter(s) by enlarged lymph nodes and, consequently, a worse outcome is expected.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

From 1959 to 1989, there were 297 patients with Stage IIIB cervical cancer who received definitive radiation therapy at the Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology and were assessable for the presence of hydronephrosis and the level of ureteral obstruction. There were 281 patients who presented with tumor fixed to the pelvic side wall, and 62 of them were associated with concurrent hydronephrosis. An additional 16 patients presented with hydronephrosis without tumor fixation to the pelvic side wall. Among these 78 documented cases of hydronephrosis, the level of ureteral obstruction was above the true pelvis in 39 patients, and below the true pelvis in the other 39. Radiation therapy was individualized according to tumor extension and configuration; para-aortic lymph nodes were not routinely treated except in patients with clinical evidence of nodal metastasis.

RESULTS

The progression-free survival (PFS) at 5 years was 35% in 62 patients with hydronephrosis and tumor fixed to the pelvic side wall vs. 43% in 213 patients with tumor fixed to the pelvic side wall only (p=0.12). However, PFS at 5 years decreased to 23% in 16 patients who presented with hydronephrosis without tumor fixation to the pelvic side wall (p < 0.001). When the level of ureteral obstruction was investigated, 5-year PFS was 39% vs. 22%, respectively, for the obstruction below vs. above the true pelvis (p=0.02). The majority of patients with ureteral obstruction above the true pelvis died of distant metastasis.

CONCLUSIONS

The additional presence of hydronephrosis did not significantly worsen the PFS among Stage IIIB patients with tumor fixation to the pelvic side wall. However, hydronephrosis without tumor extending to the pelvic side wall or the level of ureteral obstruction above the true pelvis was associated with poor outcome due to a significant increase in distant failure. We propose that this population be separated from current Stage IIIB classification.

A pilot study of concomitant boost accelerated superfractionated radiotherapy for stage III cancer of the uterine cervix

PURPOSE

Retrospective studies suggest that prolonged treatment time adversely affects control rates of squamous carcinomas managed by radiotherapy. From 1989 to 1994 a prospective clinical trial was conducted to assess the feasibility and efficacy of concomitant boost accelerated superfractionated (CBASF) radiotherapy for advanced uterine cervical carcinoma.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Twenty newly diagnosed patients with FIGO stage III squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix were irradiated using a CBASF regimen. Patients received 45 Gy administered to the whole pelvis in 25 fractions in 5 weeks. On Monday, Wednesday, and Friday of the last 3 weeks, an additional 1.6 Gy boost was given 6 hours after the whole pelvis treatment. The 9 boost treatments, totaling 14.4 Gy, were given via lateral fields encompassing the parametria and primary tumor for a cumulative tumor dose of 59.4 Gy. A single low-dose rate brachytherapy procedure was performed within 1 week after the external beam radiotherapy to raise the point A dose to 85-90 Gy in 42 days. Primary endpoints of analysis were local control, complications, and patterns of failure. Results are compared with the outcomes of 21 patients treated with conventionally fractionated (CF) radiotherapy during the same years.

RESULTS

Median total treatment time was 46 days in the CBASF group (range 37-62). Median follow-up interval among surviving CBASF patients is 3.8 years. The four-year actuarial local control rates are 78% and 70% in the CBASF and CF groups, respectively (p = ns). Only 2 CBASF patients required a treatment break because of acute toxicity, but severe late complications occurred in 8/20 CBASF patients for a crude rate of 40%. Distant failure was more common than local failure in the CBASF group, and para-aortic node failure occurred in six of the eight CBASF patients with distant failure.

CONCLUSIONS

In the management of stage III cervix cancer, the CBASF regimen produced a trend toward improved local control when compared with the CF regimen, shifting the patterns of failure toward a higher rate of isolated distant failures. The high frequency of para-aortic node failure warrants consideration of elective treatment to this region in stage III patients treated with curative intent. Although the high local control rate of the CBASF regimen supports further investigation of accelerated treatment regimens for locally advanced cervix cancer, the unacceptable risk of late complications necessitates refinement in technique and scheduling to improve the therapeutic ratio.

Hyperfractionation: where do we stand?

Hyperfractionation is generally expected to allow an escalation of total dose, thereby increasing tumour control rate, without increasing the risk of late complications. The purpose of this review is to assess the empirical evidence for this therapeutic gain from hyperfractionated radiotherapy. Although extensive clinical data have been accumulated until now, especially on treatment of head and neck cancer, the line of evidence is not consistent. The present analysis indicates that the dose per fraction generally used in standard radiotherapy is already a good choice.

Hyperfractionated external radiation therapy in stage IIIB carcinoma of uterine cervix: a prospective pilot study

PURPOSE

Brazil has one of the highest incidence of carcinoma of the cervix in the world. Half of the patients have advanced stages at the diagnosis. Due to this large number of patients we decided to conduct a prospective pilot study to investigate the tolerance to and survival rate with hyperfractionated external radiotherapy only in patients with Stage IIIB carcinoma of the uterine cervix.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Between January 1991 and December 1993, 23 patients underwent hyperfractionated external beam radiotherapy without brachytherapy. All cases were biopsy proven squamous cell carcinoma of cervix clinically Staged as IIIB (FIGO). Hyperfractionation (HFX) was given with 1.2 Gy doses, twice daily at 6-h interval, 5 days/week, to the whole pelvis up to 72 Gy within 30 working days. Complications were evaluated by an adaptation ot the RTOG Radiation Morbidity Scoring Table graded as 1 = none/mild; 2 = moderate, and 3 = severe.

RESULTS

Follow-up ranged from 27 to 50 months (median 40 months) on the 9 to 23 living patients at the time of the analysis in December 1995. There was no severe acute toxicity, but moderate acute reaction was high: 74%. The commonest site of complication was the intestine where severe late toxicity occurred in 2 of 23 (9%). Overall survival rate at 27 months was 48% and at 40 months was 43%.

DISCUSSION

There is little information in literature about HFX in carcinoma of the cervix. This is the third published study about it and the one that gave the highest total dose with external HFX of 60 x 1.2 Gy = 72 Gy. Theoretically, through the linear quadratic formula this schedule of HFX would be equivalent to 30 x 2 Gy = 60 Gy of standard fractionation, both treatments given in 30 working days. HFX schedules must be tested to establish their safety. Present results suggest being possible to further increase the total dose in the pelvis with hyperfractionated irradiation.

Altered fractionation and extended-field irradiation of carcinoma of the cervix

Conventional radiotherapy for treatment of carcinoma of the cervix consists of five daily fractions of 1.80-2.00 Gy, 5 days/week, up to 40.00-50.00 Gy, followed by intracavitary brachytherapy to complete a paracentral dose ranging from 70 to 90 Gy and a lateral pelvic wall dose ranging from 50 to 60 Gy. This results in tumor control in the pelvis for at least 91% of patients with Stage IB disease. However, survival rates at 5-year follow-up have ranged from 49% to 69% for patients with Stage III disease and 25% to 34% for patients with Stage IVA disease. Attempts to improve clinical results for patients with more advanced stages of disease have included hypofractionated and hyperfractionated radiotherapy, accelerated fractionation, and concomitant boost. However, no improvement of tumor control or survival has been obtained. Hyperfractionated external pelvic radiation remains undefined as a method of improving results. Extended-field prophylactic irradiation of the paraaortic lymph nodes has shown significant value in a study group setting. Early diagnosis and prevention continue to be the most promising approaches in the control of carcinoma of the cervix.

Long-term results of treatment of cervical carcinoma in the United States in 1973, 1978, and 1983: Patterns of Care Study (PCS)

PURPOSE

To extend the observations of patients with carcinoma of the cervix treated in 1973 for over 15 years, in 1978 for over 10 years, and in 1983 for over 5 years for survival and local control to compare treatment times and outcome.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A nationwide survey of the patterns of practice in radiation therapy for patients with squamous carcinoma of the cervix collected pretreatment and treatment data using external surveyors who reviewed patients' records. Outcome information was updated for the three separate databases by mail survey. Overall survival, no evidence of disease (NED) survival, and local control curves by stage were plotted using the estimates derived by the Kaplan-Meier method.

RESULTS

Total number of patients surveyed was 1686: 937 patients in 1973, 565 patients in 1978, and 184 patients in 1983. These are the results from changes in treatment policy, particularly the increasing use of brachytherapy. Of Stage III patients, the percentage receiving brachytherapy was 60.5% in 1973, 76.5% in 1978, and 87.9% in 1983 (p < 0.001 by linear trend test). Also, there was an increased proportion in use of higher energy for external pelvic irradiation during the more recent time period, e.g., 28% in the 1973 study, 60% in the 1978 study, and 87% in the 1983 study compared to the usage of cobalt-60 equipment. Comparison of results including overall survival, local control, and NED survival for the three different time periods showed improvement in outcome for Stage III in 1983, but not Stages I and II. The 5-year survival for Stage III increased from 25% in the 1973 survey to 47% in the 1983 survey, a linear trend that is statistically significant (p = 0.02).

CONCLUSION

The long-term results of radiotherapy for patients with carcinoma of the cervix show improved outcome for Stage III patients, which probably results from improved treatment, including higher energy for pelvic irradiation and increase in use of brachytherapy contributing better local control and fewer complications.