Computed tomography for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in adults with chronic liver disease

GALAD, or des-gamma-carboxy prothrombin compared with alpha-foetoprotein for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in people with chronic liver disease

OBJECTIVES

This is a protocol for a Cochrane Review (diagnostic). The objectives are as follows: To estimate the diagnostic accuracy of des-gamma-carboxy prothrombin, GALAD (Gender, Age, Lens culinaris agglutinin-reactive AFP, AFP and DCP), and alpha-foetoprotein for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma of any size, and at any stage, in adults with chronic liver disease, in either a surveillance programme or a clinical setting. We acknowledge the possibility that theoretically, the accuracy of the tests in a surveillance programme may differ from that in a clinical setting due to variation in inclusion criteria and the prevalence of the target condition. However, we do not plan a separate analysis for surveillance and clinical settings, as they are not clearly distinct in current clinical practice (Forner 2018; Poustchi 2011). In routine evaluation of people with chronic liver disease, index tests, as well as ultrasound, are already part of standard procedure. Given that HCC typically presents with no symptoms and is often asymptomatic, suspicion of the disease is typically based solely on the presence of advanced chronic liver disease. However, we do plan to consider the study setting as a potential source of heterogeneity. To compare the diagnostic accuracy of des-gamma-carboxy prothrombin (DCP) alone or GALAD alone versus alpha-foetoprotein (AFP), for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) of any size, at any stage; in adults with chronic liver disease, either in a surveillance programme or a clinical setting. Secondary objectives To estimate the diagnostic accuracy of DCP or GALAD versus AFP, for resectable HCC in people with chronic liver disease, in a surveillance programme and a clinical setting. To investigate the following predefined sources of heterogeneity for each of the index tests: study design (case-control studies compared to cross-sectional studies); inclusion of participants without cirrhosis (studies including more than 10% of participants without cirrhosis compared to studies including less than 10% of participants without cirrhosis); study location (population differences): studies conducted in North and South America and Europe compared to Asia and Africa; prevalence of the target condition (studies with hepatocellular carcinoma prevalence more than 10% compared to studies with hepatocellular carcinoma prevalence less than 10%); participant selection (participants recruited from planned surveillance programmes compared to clinical cohorts); different reference standards (histology of the explanted liver compared to liver biopsy compared to another reference standard); different aetiology: studies including at least 90% of participants with chronic viral hepatitis compared to studies including less than 90% of participants with chronic viral hepatitis.

Exploring transparent reporting and data availability in systematic reviews to identify subgroup evidence: imaging for suspected hepatocellular carcinoma in the non-cirrhotic liver

We aim to illustrate the role of complete and transparent reporting coupled with access to data sourced from published systematic reviews, especially assisting in the identification of evidence for subgroups within the context of a rare disease. To accomplish this principle, we provide a real-world example encountered during the revision of the Dutch clinical practice guideline for hepatocellular carcinoma. Specifically, we retrieved insights from two Cochrane reviews to identify direct evidence concerning the diagnostic test accuracy of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging for detecting hepatocellular carcinomas in suspected patients without liver cirrhosis. Through reusing the Cochrane review authors' efforts already undertaken in their exhaustive literature search and selection, we successfully identified relevant direct evidence for this subgroup of suspected patients without cirrhosis and performed an evidence synthesis within the constraints of limited resources for the guideline revision. This approach holds the potential for replication in other subgroups in the context of rare diseases, contingent on the transparent and complete reporting of systematic reviews, as well as the availability and accessibility of their extracted data. Consequently, we underscore the importance of adhering to established reporting guidelines for systematic reviews, while simultaneously advocating for increased availability and accessibility to data. Such practices would not only increase the transparency and reproducibility of systematic reviews but could also increase reusability of their data. In turn, the increased reusability could result in reduced resource utilization in other sectors such as the guideline developing community as we show in our example.

Ensemble learning enhances the precision of preliminary detection of primary hepatocellular carcinoma based on serological and demographic indices

Primary hepatocellular carcinoma (PHC) is associated with high rates of morbidity and malignancy in China and throughout the world. In clinical practice, a combination of ultrasound and alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) measurement is frequently employed for initial screening. However, the accuracy of this approach often falls short of the desired standard. Consequently, this study aimed to investigate the enhancement of precision of preliminary detection of PHC by ensemble learning techniques. To achieve this, 712 patients with PHC and 1887 healthy controls were enrolled for the assessment of four ensemble learning methods, namely, Random Forest (RF), LightGBM, Xgboost, and Catboost. A total of eleven characteristics, comprising nine serological indices and two demographic indices, were selected from the participants for use in detecting PHC. The findings identified an optimal feature subset consisting of eight features, namely AFP, albumin (ALB), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), platelets (PLT), age, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), hemoglobin (Hb), and body mass index (BMI), that achieved the highest classification accuracy of 96.62%. This emphasizes the importance of the collective use of these features in PHC diagnosis. In conclusion, the results provide evidence that the integration of serological and demographic indices together with ensemble learning models, can contribute to the precision of preliminary diagnosis of PHC.

An Exploratory Analysis of the Cost-Effectiveness of a Multi-cancer Early Detection Blood Test Compared with Standard of Care Screening in Ontario, Canada

BACKGROUND

Determining whether multi-cancer early detection (MCED) tests are cost effective is important in deciding whether they should be included in the clinical path of cancer care, especially for cancers where screening tools do not exist.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

The main objective of this study is to determine the cost effectiveness of including a MCED screening regimen together with existing provincial screening protocols for selected cancers that are prevalent in Ontario, Canada, among average risk persons aged 50-75 years. The selected cancers include breast, colorectal, lung, esophageal, liver, pancreatic, stomach, and ovarian.

METHODS

Cost effectiveness was estimated from a provincial Ministry of Health perspective. A state-transition Markov model representing the decision path of both the proposed and existing screening strategies along the natural history of the selected types of cancers was implemented. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was calculated using data from available literature and the guidelines published by the Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health (CADTH) for conducting a cost-effectiveness analysis, which included a discount rate of 1.5% applied to all costs and outcomes. Costs were also converted to 2022 Canadian dollars. To test the robustness of the model, both univariate and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

MCED screening resulted in more diagnosed cases of each type of cancer, even at an earlier stage of disease. This was also associated with fewer related deaths compared with standard of care. Notwithstanding, the analysis revealed that the MCED intervention was not cost effective [ICER: CAD$143,369 per quality-adjusted life year (QALY)], given a willingness to pay (WTP) threshold of $100,000 per QALY. The probabilistic sensitivity analyses revealed that the MCED intervention strategy was preferred to standard of care no more than 2% of the time at this WTP for both males and females. The model was most sensitive to the cost of MCED screening, and the levels of specificity of the MCED and colorectal cancer screening tests.

CONCLUSION

The main contribution of the study is to present and execute a methodological approach that can be adopted to test the cost effectiveness of an MCED tool in the Canadian setting. The model is also sufficiently generic that it could be adapted to other jurisdictions, and with consideration for increasing the WTP threshold beyond the common $100,000 per QALY limit, given the life-threatening nature of cancer, to ensure that MCED interventions are cost-effective.

HCC portal hypertension imaging score derived from CT predicts re-bleeding and mortality after acute variceal bleeding

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Risk factors for re-bleeding and death after acute variceal bleeding (AVB) in cirrhotic HCC patients are not fully understood.We aimed to (1) explore how the combination of high-risk esophageal varices, HCC status, and portal vein tumor thrombus (i.e., HCC Portal Hypertension Imaging Score [HCCPHTIS]) helps predict increased risk of variceal re-bleeding and mortality; (2) assess predictability and reproducibility of the identified variceal re-bleeding rules.

METHODS

This prospective study included 195 HCC patients with first-time AVB and liver cirrhosis, and conducted multivariable Cox regression analysis and Kaplan-Meier analysis. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was calculated to find the optimal sensitivity, specificity, and cutoff values of the variables. The reproducibility of the results obtained was verified in a different but related group of patients.

RESULTS

56 patients (28.7%) had re-bleeding within 6 weeks; HCCPHTIS was an independent risk factor for variceal re-bleeding after AVB (Odd ratio, 2.330; 95% confidence interval: 1.728-3.142, p < 0.001). The positive predictive value of HCCPHTIS cut off value > 3 was 66.2%, sensitivity 83.9%, and specificity 82.3%. HCCPHTIS area under the curve was higher than Child-Pugh score (89% vs. 75%, p < 0.001). 74(37.9%) death occurred within 6 weeks; HCCPHTIS > 4 was associated with increased risk of death within 6 weeks after AVB (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

HCCPHTIS > 3 is a strong predictor of variceal re-bleeding within the first 6 weeks. However, patients with HCCPHTIS > 4 were at increased risk of death within 6 weeks.

Endoscopic ultrasound for the diagnosis and treatment of primary hepatocellular carcinoma

Chronic liver disease has emerged as a significant global concern, with primary hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) representing a critical consequence of this disease. However, early detection of HCC remains challenging in clinical practice. Recently, there has been a growing interest in applying endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) as a diagnostic tool for gastrointestinal diseases. Nevertheless, using EUS to diagnose and treat HCC is uncommon. In this review we described the diagnostic and therapeutic applications of EUS in primary HCC and evaluated its clinical significance. The diagnostic procedures primarily involve EUS-guided fine-needle biopsy or aspiration, assessment of metastatic lymph nodes and portal vein thrombosis, portal pressure monitoring, and portal vein blood collection. Treatment mainly includes EUS-guided tumor ablation, brachytherapy, injectable chemotherapy, and managing variceal hemorrhage related to portal hypertension.

Preclinical liver cancer models in the context of immunoprecision therapy: Application and perspectives

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), ranking as the third leading cause of cancer-related mortality globally, continues to pose challenges in achieving optimal treatment outcomes. The complex nature of HCC, characterized by high spatiotemporal heterogeneity, invasive potential, and drug resistance, presents difficulties in its research. Consequently, an in-depth understanding and accurate simulation of the immune microenvironment of HCC are of paramount importance. This article comprehensively explores the application of preclinical models in HCC research, encompassing cell line models, patient-derived xenograft mouse models, genetically engineered mouse models, chemically induced models, humanized mouse models, organoid models, and microfluidic chip-based patient derived organotypic spheroids models. Each model possesses its distinct advantages and limitations in replicating the biological behavior and immune microenvironment of HCC. By scrutinizing the limitations of existing models, this paper aims to propel the development of next-generation cancer models, enabling more precise emulation of HCC characteristics. This will, in turn, facilitate the optimization of treatment strategies, drug efficacy prediction, and safety assessments, ultimately contributing to the realization of personalized and precision therapies. Additionally, this article also provides insights into future trends and challenges in the fields of tumor biology and preclinical research.

Exploiting targeted nanomedicine for surveillance, diagnosis, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the cancers that has the highest morbidity and mortality rates. In clinical practice, there are still many limitations in surveilling, diagnosing, and treating HCC, such as the poor detection of early HCC, the frequent post-surgery recurrence, the low local tumor control rate, the therapy resistance and side effects. Therefore, improved, or innovative modalities are urgently required for early diagnosis as well as refined and effective management. In recent years, nanotechnology research in the field of HCC has received great attention, with various aspects of diagnosis and treatment including biomarkers, ultrasound, diagnostic imaging, intraoperative imaging, ablation, transarterial chemoembolization, radiotherapy, and systemic therapy. Different from previous reviews that discussed from the perspective of nanoparticles' structure, design and function, this review systematically summarizes the methods and limitations of diagnosing and treating HCC in clinical guidelines and practices, as well as nanomedicine applications. Nanomedicine can overcome the limitations to improve diagnosis accuracy and therapeutic effect via enhancement of targeting, biocompatibility, bioavailability, controlled releasing, and combination of different clinical treatment modalities. Through an in-depth understanding of the logic of nanotechnology to conquer clinical limitations, the main research directions of nanotechnology in HCC are sorted out in this review. It is anticipated that nanomedicine will play a significant role in the future clinical practices of HCC.

Contrast-enhanced ultrasound for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in adults with chronic liver disease

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma occurs mostly in people with chronic liver disease. Worldwide, it ranks sixth in terms of incidence of cancer, and fourth in terms of cancer-related deaths. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) is used as an add-on test to confirm the presence of focal liver lesions suspected as hepatocellular carcinoma after prior diagnostic tests such as abdominal ultrasound or measurement of alpha-foetoprotein, or both. According to guidelines, a single contrast-enhanced imaging investigation, with either computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), may show the typical hepatocellular carcinoma hallmarks in people with cirrhosis, which will be sufficient to diagnose hepatocellular carcinoma. However, a significant number of hepatocellular carcinomas show atypical imaging features, and therefore, are missed at imaging. Dynamic CEUS images are obtained similarly to CT and MRI images. CEUS differentiates between arterial and portal venous phases, in which sonographic hepatocellular carcinoma hallmarks, such as arterial hyperenhancement and subsequent washout appearance, are investigated. The advantages of CEUS over CT and MRI include real-time imaging, use of contrast agents that do not contain iodine and are not nephrotoxic, and quick image acquisition. Despite the advantages, the use of CEUS in the diagnostic algorithm for HCC remains controversial, with disagreement on relevant guidelines. There is no clear evidence of the benefit of surveillance programmes in terms of overall survival as the conflicting results can be a consequence of an inaccurate detection, ineffective treatment, or both. Therefore, assessing the diagnostic accuracy of CEUS may clarify whether the absence of benefit could be related to underdiagnosis. Furthermore, an assessment of the accuracy of CEUS for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma is needed for either diagnosing hepatocellular carcinoma or ruling it out in people with chronic liver disease who are not included in surveillance programmes.

OBJECTIVES

1. To assess the diagnostic accuracy of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma of any size and at any stage in adults with chronic liver disease, in a surveillance programme or in a clinical setting. 2. To assess the diagnostic accuracy of CEUS for the diagnosis of resectable hepatocellular carcinoma in people with chronic liver disease and identify potential sources of heterogeneity in the results.

SEARCH METHODS

We used standard, extensive Cochrane search methods. The last date of search was 5 November 2021.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included studies assessing the diagnostic accuracy of CEUS for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in adults with chronic liver disease, with cross-sectional designs, using one of the acceptable reference standards, such as pathology of the explanted liver, and histology of resected or biopsied focal liver lesion with at least a six-month follow-up.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard Cochrane methods to screen studies, extract data, and assess the risk of bias and applicability concerns, using the QUADAS-2 checklist. We used the bivariate model and provided estimates of summary sensitivity and specificity. We assessed the certainty of the evidence using GRADE. We presented uncertainty-of-the-accuracy estimates using 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

MAIN RESULTS

We included 23 studies with 6546 participants. Studies were published between 2001 and 2021. We judged all 23 studies at high-risk of bias in at least one domain, and 13/23 studies at high concern for applicability. Most studies used different reference standards to exclude the presence of the target condition. The time interval between the index test and the reference standard was rarely defined. We also had major concerns on their applicability due to the characteristics of the participants. - CEUS for hepatocellular carcinoma of any size and stage: sensitivity 77.8% (95% CI 69.4% to 84.4%) and specificity 93.8% (95% CI 89.1% to 96.6%) (23 studies, 6546 participants; very low-certainty evidence). - CEUS for resectable hepatocellular carcinoma: sensitivity 77.5% (95% CI 62.9% to 87.6%) and specificity 92.7% (95% CI 86.8% to 96.1%) (13 studies, 1257 participants; low-certainty evidence). The observed heterogeneity in the results remains unexplained. The sensitivity analyses, including only studies with clearly prespecified positivity criteria and only studies in which the reference standard results were interpreted with no knowledge of the results about the index test, showed no differences in the results.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We found that by using CEUS, as an add-on test following abdominal ultrasound, to diagnose hepatocellular carcinoma of any size and stage, 22% of people with hepatocellular carcinoma would be missed, and 6% of people without hepatocellular carcinoma would unnecessarily undergo further testing or inappropriate treatment. As to resectable hepatocellular carcinoma, we found that 23% of people with resectable hepatocellular carcinoma would incorrectly be unresected, while 8% of people without hepatocellular carcinoma would undergo further inappropriate testing or treatment. The uncertainty resulting from the high risk of bias of the included studies, heterogeneity, and imprecision of the results and concerns on their applicability limit our ability to draw confident conclusions.

Magnetic resonance imaging for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in adults with chronic liver disease

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma occurs mostly in people with chronic liver disease and ranks sixth in terms of global incidence of cancer, and third in terms of cancer deaths. In clinical practice, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used as a second-line diagnostic imaging modality to confirm the presence of focal liver lesions suspected as hepatocellular carcinoma on prior diagnostic test such as abdominal ultrasound or alpha-fetoprotein, or both, either in surveillance programmes or in clinical settings. According to current guidelines, a single contrast-enhanced imaging study (computed tomography (CT) or MRI) showing typical hallmarks of hepatocellular carcinoma in people with cirrhosis is considered valid to diagnose hepatocellular carcinoma. The detection of hepatocellular carcinoma amenable to surgical resection could improve the prognosis. However, a significant number of hepatocellular carcinomas do not show typical hallmarks on imaging modalities, and hepatocellular carcinoma may, therefore, be missed. There is no clear evidence of the benefit of surveillance programmes in terms of overall survival: the conflicting results can be a consequence of inaccurate detection, ineffective treatment, or both. Assessing the diagnostic accuracy of MRI may clarify whether the absence of benefit could be related to underdiagnosis. Furthermore, an assessment of the accuracy of MRI in people with chronic liver disease who are not included in surveillance programmes is needed for either ruling out or diagnosing hepatocellular carcinoma.

OBJECTIVES

Primary: to assess the diagnostic accuracy of MRI for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma of any size and at any stage in adults with chronic liver disease. Secondary: to assess the diagnostic accuracy of MRI for the diagnosis of resectable hepatocellular carcinoma in adults with chronic liver disease, and to identify potential sources of heterogeneity in the results.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group Controlled Trials Register, the Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group Diagnostic Test of Accuracy Studies Register, the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, Embase, and three other databases to 9 November 2021. We manually searched articles retrieved, contacted experts, handsearched abstract books from meetings held during the last 10 years, and searched for literature in OpenGrey (9 November 2021). Further information was requested by e-mails, but no additional information was provided. No data was obtained through correspondence with investigators. We applied no language or document-type restrictions.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Studies assessing the diagnostic accuracy of MRI for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in adults with chronic liver disease, with cross-sectional designs, using one of the acceptable reference standards, such as pathology of the explanted liver and histology of resected or biopsied focal liver lesion with at least a six-month follow-up.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

At least two review authors independently screened studies, extracted data, and assessed the risk of bias and applicability concerns, using the QUADAS-2 checklist. We presented the results of sensitivity and specificity, using paired forest plots, and we tabulated the results. We used a hierarchical meta-analysis model where appropriate. We presented uncertainty of the accuracy estimates using 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We double-checked all data extractions and analyses.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 34 studies, with 4841 participants. We judged all studies to be at high risk of bias in at least one domain because most studies used different reference standards, often inappropriate to exclude the presence of the target condition, and the time interval between the index test and the reference standard was rarely defined. Regarding applicability, we judged 15% (5/34) of studies to be at low concern and 85% (29/34) of studies to be at high concern mostly owing to characteristics of the participants, most of whom were on waiting lists for orthotopic liver transplantation, and due to pathology of the explanted liver being the only reference standard. MRI for hepatocellular carcinoma of any size and stage: sensitivity 84.4% (95% CI 80.1% to 87.9%) and specificity 93.8% (95% CI 90.1% to 96.1%) (34 studies, 4841 participants; low-certainty evidence). MRI for resectable hepatocellular carcinoma: sensitivity 84.3% (95% CI 77.6% to 89.3%) and specificity 92.9% (95% CI 88.3% to 95.9%) (16 studies, 2150 participants; low-certainty evidence). The observed heterogeneity in the results remains mostly unexplained. The sensitivity analyses, which included only studies with clearly prespecified positivity criteria and only studies in which the reference standard results were interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test, showed no variation in the results.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We found that using MRI as a second-line imaging modality to diagnose hepatocellular carcinoma of any size and stage, 16% of people with hepatocellular carcinoma would be missed, and 6% of people without hepatocellular carcinoma would be unnecessarily treated. For resectable hepatocellular carcinoma, we found that 16% of people with resectable hepatocellular carcinoma would improperly not be resected, while 7% of people without hepatocellular carcinoma would undergo inappropriate surgery. The uncertainty resulting from the high risk of bias in the included studies and concerns regarding their applicability limit our ability to confidently draw conclusions based on our results.

Computed tomography for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in adults with chronic liver disease

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma occurs mostly in people with chronic liver disease and ranks sixth in terms of global incidence of cancer, and fourth in terms of cancer deaths. In clinical practice, computed tomography (CT) is used as a second-line diagnostic imaging modality to confirm the presence of focal liver lesions suspected as hepatocellular carcinoma on prior diagnostic test such as abdominal ultrasound or alpha-foetoprotein, or both, either in surveillance programmes or in clinical settings. According to current guidelines, a single contrast-enhanced imaging study CT or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showing typical hallmarks of hepatocellular carcinoma in people with cirrhosis is valid to diagnose hepatocellular carcinoma. However, a significant number of hepatocellular carcinomas do not show typical hallmarks on imaging modalities, and hepatocellular carcinoma is, therefore, missed. There is no clear evidence of the benefit of surveillance programmes in terms of overall survival: the conflicting results can be a consequence of inaccurate detection, ineffective treatment, or both. Assessing the diagnostic accuracy of CT may clarify whether the absence of benefit could be related to underdiagnosis. Furthermore, an assessment of the accuracy of CT in people with chronic liver disease, who are not included in surveillance programmes is needed for either ruling out or diagnosing hepatocellular carcinoma.

OBJECTIVES

Primary: to assess the diagnostic accuracy of multidetector, multiphasic contrast-enhanced CT for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma of any size and at any stage in adults with chronic liver disease, either in a surveillance programme or in a clinical setting. Secondary: to assess the diagnostic accuracy of CT for the diagnosis of resectable hepatocellular carcinoma in adults with chronic liver disease.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Trials Register, Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Diagnostic-Test-Accuracy Studies Register, the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, Embase, LILACS, Science Citation Index Expanded, and Conference Proceedings Citation Index - Science until 4 May 2021. We applied no language or document-type restrictions.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Studies assessing the diagnostic accuracy of CT for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in adults with chronic liver disease, with cross-sectional designs, using one of the acceptable reference standards, such as pathology of the explanted liver and histology of resected or biopsied focal liver lesion with at least a six-month follow-up.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

At least two review authors independently screened studies, extracted data, and assessed the risk of bias and applicability concerns, using the QUADAS-2 checklist. We presented the results of sensitivity and specificity, using paired forest plots, and tabulated the results. We used a hierarchical meta-analysis model where appropriate. We presented uncertainty of the accuracy estimates using 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We double-checked all data extractions and analyses.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 21 studies, with a total of 3101 participants. We judged all studies to be at high risk of bias in at least one domain because most studies used different reference standards, often inappropriate to exclude the presence of the target condition, and the time-interval between the index test and the reference standard was rarely defined. Regarding applicability in the patient selection domain, we judged 14% (3/21) of studies to be at low concern and 86% (18/21) of studies to be at high concern owing to characteristics of the participants who were on waiting lists for orthotopic liver transplantation. CT for hepatocellular carcinoma of any size and stage: sensitivity 77.5% (95% CI 70.9% to 82.9%) and specificity 91.3% (95% CI 86.5% to 94.5%) (21 studies, 3101 participants; low-certainty evidence). CT for resectable hepatocellular carcinoma: sensitivity 71.4% (95% CI 60.3% to 80.4%) and specificity 92.0% (95% CI 86.3% to 95.5%) (10 studies, 1854 participants; low-certainty evidence). In the three studies at low concern for applicability (861 participants), we found sensitivity 76.9% (95% CI 50.8% to 91.5%) and specificity 89.2% (95% CI 57.0% to 98.1%). The observed heterogeneity in the results remains mostly unexplained. The sensitivity analyses, which included only studies with clearly prespecified positivity criteria and only studies in which the reference standard results were interpreted without knowledge of the results of the index test, showed no variation in the results.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

In the clinical pathway for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in adults with chronic liver disease, CT has roles as a confirmatory test for hepatocellular carcinoma lesions, and for staging assessment. We found that using CT in detecting hepatocellular carcinoma of any size and stage, 22.5% of people with hepatocellular carcinoma would be missed, and 8.7% of people without hepatocellular carcinoma would be unnecessarily treated. For resectable hepatocellular carcinoma, we found that 28.6% of people with resectable hepatocellular carcinoma would improperly not be resected, while 8% of people without hepatocellular carcinoma would undergo inappropriate surgery. The uncertainty resulting from the high risk of bias in the included studies and concerns regarding their applicability limit our ability to confidently draw conclusions based on our results.