1
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van Haaren MJH, Steller LB, Vastert SJ, Calis JJA, van Loosdregt J. Get Spliced: Uniting Alternative Splicing and Arthritis. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:8123. [PMID: 39125692 PMCID: PMC11311815 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25158123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2024] [Revised: 07/21/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Immune responses demand the rapid and precise regulation of gene protein expression. Splicing is a crucial step in this process; ~95% of protein-coding gene transcripts are spliced during mRNA maturation. Alternative splicing allows for distinct functional regulation, as it can affect transcript degradation and can lead to alternative functional protein isoforms. There is increasing evidence that splicing can directly regulate immune responses. For several genes, immune cells display dramatic changes in isoform-level transcript expression patterns upon activation. Recent advances in long-read RNA sequencing assays have enabled an unbiased and complete description of transcript isoform expression patterns. With an increasing amount of cell types and conditions that have been analyzed with such assays, thousands of novel transcript isoforms have been identified. Alternative splicing has been associated with autoimmune diseases, including arthritis. Here, GWASs revealed that SNPs associated with arthritis are enriched in splice sites. In this review, we will discuss how alternative splicing is involved in immune responses and how the dysregulation of alternative splicing can contribute to arthritis pathogenesis. In addition, we will discuss the therapeutic potential of modulating alternative splicing, which includes examples of spliceform-based biomarkers for disease severity or disease subtype, splicing manipulation using antisense oligonucleotides, and the targeting of specific immune-related spliceforms using antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurice J. H. van Haaren
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Levina Bertina Steller
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sebastiaan J. Vastert
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Division of Pediatric Rheumatology and Immunology, Wilhelmina Children’s Hospital, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jorg J. A. Calis
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jorg van Loosdregt
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
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2
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Al-Akioui-Sanz K, Moraru M, Vilches C. A simple genotyping method for CD247 3'-untranslated region polymorphism rs1052231 and characterization of a reference cell panel. HLA 2021; 98:218-222. [PMID: 34233083 PMCID: PMC9291556 DOI: 10.1111/tan.14361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
CD247 (or CD3‐ζ chain) is an essential adaptor and signal‐transducing molecule of the T‐cell antigen receptor (TCR) complex, and it also couples to NK‐cell activating receptors such as NKp46, NKp30 and CD16A (FcγRIII). Noncoding sequence polymorphisms and variations in CD247 expression, a tightly regulated process, have been related with an altered immune response in multiple health conditions. A single nucleotide polymorphism (T > A) at nucleotide 844 of the CD247 3′‐untranslated region, rs1052231, has been related with lower CD247 gene expression and it has been investigated as a potential biomarker of autoimmune disease. We present here a simple, accurate, reliable, time‐efficient, and cost‐effective method for CD247‐rs1052231 genotyping. Using this method, based on polymerase chain reaction with confronting two‐pair primers (PCR‐CTPP), we have also characterized the CD247‐rs1052231 genotypes in a panel of worldwide available cell lines, which should facilitate study of the role of this polymorphism in immunity and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karima Al-Akioui-Sanz
- Immunogenetics & Histocompatibility, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Puerta de Hierro-Segovia de Arana, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Manuela Moraru
- Immunogenetics & Histocompatibility, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Puerta de Hierro-Segovia de Arana, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Vilches
- Immunogenetics & Histocompatibility, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Puerta de Hierro-Segovia de Arana, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
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3
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Gorentla BK, Zhong XP. T cell Receptor Signal Transduction in T lymphocytes. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL & CELLULAR IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 2012:5. [PMID: 23946894 PMCID: PMC3740441 DOI: 10.4172/2155-9899.s12-005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The T cell receptor (TCR) recognizes self or foreign antigens presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Engagement of the TCR triggers the formation of multi-molecular signalosomes that lead to the generation of second messengers and subsequent activation of multiple distal signaling cascades, such as the Ca+2-calcineurin-NFAT, RasGRP1-Ras-Erk1/2, PKCθ-IKK-NFκB, and TSC1/2-mTOR pathways. These signaling cascades control many aspects of T cell biology. Mechanisms have been evolved to fine-tune TCR signaling to maintain T cell homeostasis and self-tolerance, and to properly mount effective responses to microbial infection. Defects or deregulation of TCR signaling has been implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balachandra K Gorentla
- Pediatric Biology Center, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Gurgaon, 122016, India
| | - Xiao-Ping Zhong
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Immunology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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4
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Warchoł T, Piotrowski P, Lianeri M, Cieślak D, Wudarski M, Hrycaj P, Lacki JK, Jagodziński PP. The CD3Z 844 T>A polymorphism within the 3'-UTR of CD3Z confers increased risk of incidence of systemic lupus erythematosus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 74:68-72. [PMID: 19422667 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0039.2009.01264.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Recently, a family-based association analysis showed that the haplotype carrying a low expression of the variant CD3Z 844 T>A (rs1052231) polymorphism located in the 3'-untranslated region of CD3Z predisposes to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) incidence. We analyzed the prevalence of the CD3Z 844 T>A polymorphism in SLE patients (n = 152) and controls (n = 304) in Poland. We observed that women with the CD3Z AA and CD3Z AT genotypes exhibited a 1.845-fold increased risk of SLE [95% confidence intervals (95% CI) = 1.222-2.787, P = 0.0038]. However, we did not find an increased risk for the homozygous CD3Z AA genotype (odds ratio = 1.204, 95% CI = 0.2838-5.108, P = 1.0000). This observation confers that genetic factors causing a decreased level of CD3-zeta in T cells may predispose to SLE incidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Warchoł
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznań, Poland
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5
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Li Y. Alterations in the expression pattern of TCR zeta chain in T cells from patients with hematological diseases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 13:267-75. [PMID: 18854088 DOI: 10.1179/102453308x343482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
The TCR zeta chain, a component of the T cell receptor (TCR)/CD3 complex, plays a significant role in the assembly of the receptor complex and in connecting antigen recognition to the intracellular signal transduction apparatus. Recently, studies have demonstrated altered expression and function of this signal transduction molecule in T cells from patients with hematological diseases. In this review, current knowledge concerning the biological feature and function of TCR zeta protein, splice variant and mutation of TCR zeta chain gene and alteration of expression pattern in hematological diseases and the related mechanism are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangqiu Li
- Institute of Hematology, Medical College and Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine of Ministry of Education, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China.
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6
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Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) has long been recognized to be characterized by dysregulated signaling pathways in T and B lymphocytes, beginning with observations of cellular hyperactivity and hyperresponsiveness, and evolving to recent studies focused upon the genetic and molecular bases of such phenomena. This review focuses on recently elucidated signaling abnormalities currently thought to be intrinsic to T and/or B cells in human SLE.
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MESH Headings
- Alternative Splicing/immunology
- Animals
- Antigens, CD/immunology
- Antigens, CD/metabolism
- B-Lymphocytes/immunology
- B-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- CD3 Complex/immunology
- CD3 Complex/metabolism
- DNA Methylation/genetics
- DNA Methylation/immunology
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- DNA-Binding Proteins/immunology
- DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factors/genetics
- Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factors/immunology
- Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factors/metabolism
- Homeostasis
- Humans
- Interleukin-2/metabolism
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/immunology
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/metabolism
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Membrane Microdomains/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism
- Signal Transduction
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanford L Peng
- Clinical Research and Exploratory Development, 3431 Hillview Ave., M/S A2-259, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA.
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7
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Gorman CL, Russell AI, Zhang Z, Cunninghame Graham D, Cope AP, Vyse TJ. Polymorphisms in the CD3Z gene influence TCRzeta expression in systemic lupus erythematosus patients and healthy controls. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:1060-70. [PMID: 18178846 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.2.1060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
TCRzeta (CD247) functions as an amplification module in the TCR signaling cascade and is essential for assembly and surface expression of the TCR/CD3 complex. The TCRzeta-chain is down-regulated in many chronic infectious and inflammatory diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). It is unclear whether reduced TCRzeta expression is a cause or a consequence of chronic inflammatory responses. We have addressed this question by adopting a combined genetic and functional approach. We analyzed TCRzeta protein expression using a FACS-based expression index and documented considerable, but longitudinally stable, variation in TCRzeta expression in healthy individuals. The variation in TCRzeta expression was associated with polymorphisms in the CD3Z 3'-untranslated region (UTR) in SLE patients and healthy controls. Detailed mapping of the 3'-UTR revealed that the minor alleles of two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in strong disequilibrium (rs1052230 and rs1052231) were the causal variants associated with low TCRzeta expression (p=0.015). Using allelic imbalance analysis, the minor alleles of these 3'-UTR SNPs were associated with one-third of the level of mRNA compared with the major allele. A family-based association analysis showed that the haplotype carrying the low-expression variants predisposes to SLE (p=0.033). This suggests that a genetically determined reduction in TCRzeta expression has functional consequences manifested by systemic autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire L Gorman
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital, UK.
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8
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Roberts JL, Lauritsen JPH, Cooney M, Parrott RE, Sajaroff EO, Win CM, Keller MD, Carpenter JH, Carabana J, Krangel MS, Sarzotti M, Zhong XP, Wiest DL, Buckley RH. T-B+NK+ severe combined immunodeficiency caused by complete deficiency of the CD3zeta subunit of the T-cell antigen receptor complex. Blood 2007; 109:3198-206. [PMID: 17170122 PMCID: PMC1852234 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2006-08-043166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2006] [Accepted: 12/05/2006] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
CD3zeta is a subunit of the T-cell antigen receptor (TCR) complex required for its assembly and surface expression that also plays an important role in TCR-mediated signal transduction. We report here a patient with T(-)B(+)NK(+) severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) who was homozygous for a single C insertion following nucleotide 411 in exon 7 of the CD3zeta gene. The few T cells present contained no detectable CD3zeta protein, expressed low levels of cell surface CD3epsilon, and were nonfunctional. CD4(+)CD8(-)CD3epsilon(low), CD4(-)CD8(+)CD3epsilon(low), and CD4(-)CD8(-)CD3epsilon(low) cells were detected in the periphery, and the patient also exhibited an unusual population of CD56(-)CD16(+) NK cells with diminished cytolytic activity. Additional studies demonstrated that retrovirally transduced patient mutant CD3zeta cDNA failed to rescue assembly of nascent complete TCR complexes or surface TCR expression in CD3zeta-deficient MA5.8 murine T-cell hybridoma cells. Nascent transduced mutant CD3zeta protein was also not detected in metabolically labeled MA5.8 cells, suggesting that it was unstable and rapidly degraded. Taken together, these findings provide the first demonstration that complete CD3zeta deficiency in humans can cause SCID by preventing normal TCR assembly and surface expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph L Roberts
- Department of Pediatrics and Immunology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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9
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Fairhurst AM, Wandstrat AE, Wakeland EK. Systemic lupus erythematosus: multiple immunological phenotypes in a complex genetic disease. Adv Immunol 2006; 92:1-69. [PMID: 17145301 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2776(06)92001-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex polygenic autoimmune disease characterized by the presence of anti-nuclear autoantibodies (ANAs) that are often detectable years prior to the onset of clinical disease. The disease is associated with a chronic activation of the immune system, with the most severe forms progressing to inflammatory damage that can impact multiple organ systems in afflicted individuals. Current therapeutic strategies poorly control disease manifestations and are generally immunosuppressive. Recent studies in human patient populations and animal models have associated elements of the innate immune system and abnormalities in the immature B lymphocyte receptor repertoires with disease initiation. A variety of cytokines, most notably type I interferons, play important roles in disease pathogenesis and effector mechanisms. The genetic basis for disease susceptibility is complex, and analyses in humans and mice have identified multiple susceptibility loci, several of which are located in genomic regions that are syntenic between humans and mice. The complexities of the genetic interactions that mediate lupus have been investigated in murine model systems by characterizing the progressive development of disease in strains expressing various combinations of susceptibility alleles. These analyses indicate that genetic epistasis dramatically impact disease development and support the feasibility of identifying molecular pathways that can suppress disease progression without completely impairing normal immune function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Marie Fairhurst
- Center for Immunology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
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10
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Gorman C, Vyse T, Cope A. What does the immunogenetic basis of rheumatoid arthritis teach us about the immunobiology of the disease? Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2006; 2:717-25. [PMID: 20477627 DOI: 10.1586/1744666x.2.5.717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease in which, although the exact etiology is unknown, the contribution from genetic factors is approximately 60%. major histocompatibility complex alleles make the largest contribution to this genetic effect. The remainder is probably made up of an, as yet undefined, number of genes ( approximately 50-200) with low disease penetrance. Recent advances in genetic technology are now enabling us to start to identify some of these more moderate risk-conferring candidate genes. Evidence from functional studies of such genes is beginning to provide insight into the exact nature of the pathways and processes involved in disease susceptibility and expression. In this review, we will discuss how a growing number of genetic polymorphisms might underpin the immunological and molecular anomalies characteristic of rheumatoid arthritis. Specifically, we will focus on one particular pathway, T-cell activation, with an emphasis on the genetic polymorphism that influences antigen presentation and recognition in antigen-presenting cells, as well as those genes that influence the thresholds of antigen-receptor signaling in T lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Gorman
- Imperial College London, The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, 1 Aspenlea Road, Hammersmith, London W6 8LH, UK
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11
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Tsuzaka K, Setoyama Y, Yoshimoto K, Shiraishi K, Suzuki K, Abe T, Takeuchi T. A splice variant of the TCR zeta mRNA lacking exon 7 leads to the down-regulation of TCR zeta, the TCR/CD3 complex, and IL-2 production in systemic lupus erythematosus T cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:3518-25. [PMID: 15749888 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.6.3518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The reduction or absence of TCR zeta-chain (zeta) expression in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is thought to be a factor in the pathogenesis of SLE. We previously reported a splice variant of zeta mRNA that lacks the 36-bp exon 7 (zeta mRNA/exon 7(-)) and is accompanied by the down-regulation of zeta protein in T cells from SLE patients. In this study, we show that EX7- mutants (MA5.8 cells deficient in zeta protein that have been transfected with zeta mRNA/exon 7(-)) exhibit a reduction in the expression of TCR/CD3 complex and zeta protein on their cell surface as well as a reduction in the production of IL-2 after stimulation with anti-CD3 Ab, compared with that in wild-type (WT) mutants (MA5.8 cells transfected with the WT zeta mRNA). Furthermore, real-time PCR analyses demonstrated that zeta mRNA/exon 7(-) in EX7- mutants was easily degraded compared with zeta mRNA by the WT mutants. Pulse-chase experiment showed zeta protein produced by this EX7- mutants was more rapidly decreased compared with the WT mutants. Thus, the lower stability of zeta mRNA/exon 7(-) might also be responsible for the reduced expression of the TCR/CD3 complex, including zeta protein, in SLE T cells.
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MESH Headings
- Alternative Splicing
- Animals
- Cell Line
- Down-Regulation
- Exons
- Humans
- Hybridomas
- Interleukin-2/biosynthesis
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/genetics
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/immunology
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/metabolism
- Mice
- RNA Stability
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptor-CD3 Complex, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Kensei Tsuzaka
- Second Department of Internal Medicine, Saitama Medical Center, Saitama Medical School, Kawagoe, Saitama, Japan.
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12
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Atkinson TP, Hall CG, Goldsmith J, Kirkham PM. Splice variant in TCRzeta links T cell receptor signaling to a G-protein-related signaling pathway. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003; 310:761-6. [PMID: 14550268 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2003.09.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The T cell receptor zeta chain is required for efficient receptor expression and contributes to T cell receptor-mediated activation of ZAP-70 and PLC-gamma1 as well as other signaling functions. A splice variant of zeta has been described which contains a 3bp insert coding for a glutamine in the cytoplasmic domain. The variant, here designated zeta-Q, is abundant, comprising 20-50% of zeta transcripts in humans, and production of the two isoforms is conserved among distantly related vertebrate species. Analysis of the peptide region in which the insert occurs reveals an unexpected homology with G-protein gamma chains. Transfection studies suggest that disruption in the alignment of three conserved prolines by the insertion of an extra glutamine impairs TCR-mediated PLC activation. Experiments with human lymphocytes suggest that zeta-Q message undergoes upregulation following cellular activation. Our data suggest that regulation of the relative levels of these two transcripts is related to an ancient mechanism which functions to raise the number of receptors required to produce cellular activation during the course of prolonged cellular stimulation, perhaps through a G-protein-related pathway.
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MESH Headings
- Alternative Splicing
- Animals
- CD3 Complex/biosynthesis
- Cattle
- DNA, Complementary/metabolism
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- GTP-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Humans
- Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Membrane Proteins/biosynthesis
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Mice
- Models, Molecular
- Protein Isoforms
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Signal Transduction
- Time Factors
- Transfection
- Type C Phospholipases/metabolism
- Up-Regulation
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13
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Tsuzaka K, Fukuhara I, Setoyama Y, Yoshimoto K, Suzuki K, Abe T, Takeuchi T. TCR zeta mRNA with an alternatively spliced 3'-untranslated region detected in systemic lupus erythematosus patients leads to the down-regulation of TCR zeta and TCR/CD3 complex. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 171:2496-503. [PMID: 12928398 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.171.5.2496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The reduction or absence of TCR zeta-chain (zeta) expression in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients is thought to be related to the pathogenesis of SLE. Recently, we reported the predominant expression of zeta mRNA containing an alternatively spliced 3'-untranslated region (3'UTR; zetamRNA/as-3'UTR) and a reduction in the expression of zeta mRNA containing the wild-type 3'UTR (zetamRNA/w-3'UTR) in T cells from SLE patients. Here we show that AS3'UTR mutants (MA5.8 cells deficient in zeta protein that have been transfected with zetamRNA/as-3'UTR) exhibit a reduction in the expression of TCR/CD3 complex and zeta protein on their cell surface as well as a reduction in the production of IL-2 after stimulation with anti-CD3 Ab compared with that in wild-type 3'UTR mutants (MA5.8 cells transfected with zetamRNA/w-3'UTR). Furthermore, the real-time PCR analyses demonstrated that the half-life of zetamRNA/as-3'UTR in AS3'UTR mutants (3 h) was much shorter than that of zetamRNA/w-3'UTR in wild-type 3'UTR mutants (15 h). Thus, the lower stability of zetamRNA/as-3'UTR, which is predominant in SLE T cells, may be responsible for the reduced expression of the TCR/CD3 complex, including zeta protein, in SLE T cells.
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MESH Headings
- 3' Untranslated Regions/antagonists & inhibitors
- 3' Untranslated Regions/biosynthesis
- 3' Untranslated Regions/physiology
- 3T3 Cells
- Alternative Splicing/physiology
- Animals
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Membrane/genetics
- Cell Membrane/immunology
- Cell Membrane/metabolism
- Down-Regulation/genetics
- Down-Regulation/immunology
- Humans
- Interleukin-2/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interleukin-2/biosynthesis
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/genetics
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/immunology
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/metabolism
- Membrane Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Membrane Proteins/biosynthesis
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Mice
- RNA Stability/genetics
- RNA Stability/immunology
- RNA, Messenger/antagonists & inhibitors
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- RNA, Messenger/physiology
- Receptor-CD3 Complex, Antigen, T-Cell/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor-CD3 Complex, Antigen, T-Cell/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Sequence Deletion
- Transfection
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Affiliation(s)
- Kensei Tsuzaka
- Second Department of Internal Medicine, Saitama Medical Center, Saitama Medical School, Kamoda 1981, Kawagoe, Saitama 350-8550, Japan.
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14
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Perdriger A, Werner-Leyval S, Rollot-Elamrani K. The genetic basis for systemic lupus erythematosus. Joint Bone Spine 2003; 70:103-8. [PMID: 12713853 DOI: 10.1016/s1297-319x(03)00007-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Genetic factors play a major role in the development of lupus. More than 5% of cases are familial, and the concordance rate between identical twins is 40%. Genetic studies in mice suggest a complex mechanism of transmission involving interactions among several susceptibility genes and, probably, protective genes. Genetic studies in humans have identified nearly 50 chromosomal areas possibly involved in lupus transmission. Significant linkage has been found for at least six regions, two on chromosome 1, one near the HLA region on chromosome 6, and three on chromosomes 2, 4, and 16, respectively. Many candidate genes have been identified based on their location or possible pathogenic effects. Specific characteristics of the HLA region, as well as complement factor deficiencies, may promote nuclear antigen presentation, thereby triggering autoantibody production. The genetic polymorphism of cytokines and, perhaps, of the T-cell receptor (TCR) may contribute to deregulate lymphocyte activity. The polymorphism of the Fc receptors of immunoglobulins may affect immune complex clearance, thereby promoting tissue damage. Further genetic studies are needed to enrich the fund of knowledge on lupus and to identify new targets for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleth Perdriger
- Rheumatology Department, Rennes Teaching Hospital, Rennes, France.
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15
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Davis RS, Dennis G, Odom MR, Gibson AW, Kimberly RP, Burrows PD, Cooper MD. Fc receptor homologs: newest members of a remarkably diverse Fc receptor gene family. Immunol Rev 2002; 190:123-36. [PMID: 12493010 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-065x.2002.19009.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Newfound relatives of the classical Fc receptors (FcR) have been provisionally named the Fc receptor homologs (FcRH). The recent identification of eight human and six mouse FcRH genes substantially increases the size and functional potential of the FcR family. The extended family of FcR and FcRH genes spans approximately 15 Mb of the human chromosome 1q21-23 region, whereas in mice this family is split between chromosomes 1 and 3. The FcRH genes encode molecules with variable combinations of five subtypes of immunoglobulin (Ig) domains. The presence of a conserved sequence motif in one Ig domain subtype implies Ig Fc binding capability for many FcRH family members that are preferentially expressed by B lineage cells. In addition, most FcRH family members have consensus tyrosine-based activating and inhibitory motifs in their cytoplasmic domains, while the others lack features typical of transmembrane receptors. The FcRH family members, like the classical FcRs, come in multiple isoforms and allelic variations. The unique individual and polymorphic properties of the FcR/FcRH members indicate a remarkably diverse Fc receptor gene family with immunoregulatory function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randall S Davis
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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16
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Wu J, Edberg JC, Gibson AW, Kimberly RP. Conservation of FcepsilonRI gamma chain coding region in normals and in SLE patients. Lupus 2002; 11:42-5. [PMID: 11898918 DOI: 10.1191/0961203302lu145oa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
High-frequency single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) alleles are useful in mapping genes responsible for disease susceptibility. Functionally, Fcgamma receptors (FcgammaR) have been implicated in autoimmune disease, and the gene encoding the signaling element for several FcgammaR, Fc-epsilon-receptor gamma-chain (FcepsilonRIgamma), has several SNPs in the immunoreceptor tyrosine activation motif (ITAM) recorded in GenBank. Direct sequencing of the FcepsilonRIgamma coding region found potentially polymorphic sites in the 5'-->3' direction in control donors, which were not confirmed in the reverse direction (n = 66), and further exploration of 80 SLE patients revealed no non-synonymous SNPs. One normal donor was heterozygous for a non-synonymous SNP at nt 38 which changed the fifth codon from valine (GTG) to methionine (ATG). Although the EST databases suggest candidate SNPs, insertions and deletions, these appear to be artifacts, most probably due to secondary structure. The coding region of FcepsilonRIgamma shows a remarkable absence of nucleotide diversity. Either as yet unidentified regulatory elements of FcepsilonRIgamma or other genes in the region of human chromosome 1q23 are likely to be systemic lupus erythematosus disease susceptibility and severity genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Wu
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
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17
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Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex, multifactorial autoimmune disease. Genetic factors are thought to contribute to its pathogenesis. There have been numerous recent advances in the study of murine and human lupus genetics. In well-defined experimental transgenic or gene-knockout mouse models, the development of lupus-like disease has implicated specific genes and pathways in the disease pathogenesis. Linkage analyses have mapped multiple susceptibility loci and disease suppressive loci using inbred strains of mice that spontaneously develop lupus-like disease. Elegant genetic dissection and function studies have led to the recent identification of two murine candidate susceptibility genes, Ifi202 (encoding an interferon-inducible protein) and Cr2 (encoding complement receptors 1 and 2). In human lupus, case- control studies have established associations of SLE with certain major histocompatibility class II alleles, complement deficiencies, and polymorphisms of Fc gamma receptor genes, a complement-related gene, and cytokine genes. During the past several years, linkage analyses using SLE multiplex families have provided many chromosomal regions for further exploration of susceptibility genes. Six regions exhibiting significant linkage to SLE are promising. Studies are underway to fine map these linked regions and to identify the genes in the susceptibility regions. An understanding of the genes involved in the development of lupus should provide targets for more focused therapy in lupus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Betty P Tsao
- UCLA School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, 1000 Veteran Avenue, Room 32-59, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1670, USA.
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18
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Nambiar MP, Enyedy EJ, Fisher CU, Krishnan S, Warke VG, Gilliland WR, Oglesby RJ, Tsokos GC. Abnormal expression of various molecular forms and distribution of T cell receptor zeta chain in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2002; 46:163-74. [PMID: 11817588 DOI: 10.1002/1529-0131(200201)46:1<163::aid-art10065>3.0.co;2-j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE T cells from the majority of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) display antigen receptor-mediated signaling aberrations associated with defective T cell receptor (TCR) zeta chain expression. The TCR zeta chain, a critical signaling molecule, exists in multiple molecular forms and membrane fractions with distinct functions in antigen-mediated signaling processes. This study was undertaken to investigate the complete spectrum of expression of the different forms and distribution of the TCR zeta chain in SLE T cells. METHODS T cells were isolated from 48 SLE patients and 21 healthy subjects. The expression of various forms of the TCR zeta chain was investigated by immunoblotting with specific antibodies. The lipid raft-associated form of the zeta chain was determined by quantitating the solubilized zeta chain after disruption of the lipid rafts by cholesterol depletion using methyl-betacyclodextrin. The distribution of the zeta chain was investigated by fluorescence microscopy. RESULTS The phosphorylated 21- and 23-kd forms and the detergent-insoluble membrane-associated form of the TCR zeta chain and alternatively spliced zeta chain were significantly decreased in SLE T cells. In contrast, major ubiquitinated forms of the zeta chain were increased in these cells. We also identified up-regulation of a novel 14-kd form of the zeta chain in SLE T cells. Resting SLE T cell membranes had an increased percentage of the residual membrane-bound zeta chain in the lipid rafts. Fluorescence microscopy findings indicated that the residual zeta chain is more clustered on the cell membranes of SLE T cells. CONCLUSION These results suggest that, in addition to the 16-kd form, expression of other molecular forms and fractions of the TCR zeta chain as well as its membrane distribution are abnormal in SLE T cells. Increased lipid raft association and surface clustering of the zeta chain may explain the molecular mechanisms underlying the signaling abnormalities in these cells.
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19
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Yasutomo K, Horiuchi T, Kagami S, Tsukamoto H, Hashimura C, Urushihara M, Kuroda Y. Mutation of DNASE1 in people with systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat Genet 2001; 28:313-4. [PMID: 11479590 DOI: 10.1038/91070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 442] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a highly prevalent human autoimmune diseases that causes progressive glomerulonephritis, arthritis and an erythematoid rash. Mice deficient in deoxyribonuclease I (Dnase1) develop an SLE-like syndrome. Here we describe two patients with a heterozygous nonsense mutation in exon 2 of DNASE1, decreased DNASE1 activity and an extremely high immunoglobulin G titer against nucleosomal antigens. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that a direct connection exists between low activity of DNASE1 and progression of human SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Yasutomo
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Tokushima, Tokushima 770-8503, Japan.
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20
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Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex, multifactorial autoimmune disease. Genetic factors are believed to contribute to its pathogenesis. There have been numerous recent advances in the study of murine and human lupus genetics. In well-defined, experimental, transgenic or gene-knockout mouse models, the development of lupus-like disease has implicated specific genes and pathways in the disease pathogenesis. Linkage analyses have mapped multiple susceptibility loci and disease suppressive loci using inbred strains of mice that spontaneously develop lupus-like disease. Elegant genetic dissection has demonstrated that a component phenotype of SLE is displayed by each congenic strain carrying a single susceptibility locus on a resistant genetic background, whereas polycongenic strains exhibit fatal lupus nephritis. These studies suggest that genes in separate pathways can interact to augment or suppress the initiation and progression of systemic autoimmunity. In association studies of human lupus, the contributions of the MHC loci, Fcg receptors, various cytokines, components of the complement cascade, and proteins involved in apoptosis have been explored. Most recently, linkage analyses have been performed and provide many chromosomal regions for further exploration for susceptibility genes. Studies to identify the genes in the susceptibility regions are underway. An understanding of the genes involved in the development of lupus should provide targets for more focused therapy in lupus.
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Affiliation(s)
- B P Tsao
- UCLA School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, 1000 Veteran Avenue, Room 32-59, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1670, USA.
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21
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Nambiar MP, Enyedy EJ, Warke VG, Krishnan S, Dennis G, Wong HK, Kammer GM, Tsokos GC. T cell signaling abnormalities in systemic lupus erythematosus are associated with increased mutations/polymorphisms and splice variants of T cell receptor zeta chain messenger RNA. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2001; 44:1336-50. [PMID: 11407693 DOI: 10.1002/1529-0131(200106)44:6<1336::aid-art226>3.0.co;2-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE T cells from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) display antigen receptor-mediated signaling aberrations associated with defective T cell receptor (TCR) zeta chain protein and messenger RNA (mRNA) expression. This study was undertaken to explore the possibility that coding-region mutations/polymorphisms of the TCR zeta chain could account for its decreased expression and altered signaling in SLE T cells. METHODS TCR zeta chain mRNA from 48 SLE patients, 18 disease controls, and 21 healthy volunteers was reverse transcribed, amplified by polymerase chain reaction, and cloned, and complementary DNA (cDNA) was sequenced. DNA sequences from multiple clones were analyzed for silent single-nucleotide polymorphisms, mutations, and splice variations, to promote the identification of heterozygosity. RESULTS DNA sequence analysis revealed several widely distributed missense mutations and silent polymorphisms in the coding region of the TCR zeta chain, which were more frequent in SLE patients than in patients with other rheumatic diseases or healthy controls (P < 0.0001). Several of the missense mutations were located in the 3 immunoreceptor tyrosine activation motifs or the GTP binding domain, and this could lead to functional alterations in the TCR zeta chain. A splice variant of the TCR zeta chain with a codon CAG (glutamine) insertion between exons IV and V was found in half of the SLE and control samples. Two larger spliced isoforms of the TCR zeta chain, with an insertion of 145 bases and 93 bases between exons I and II, were found only in SLE T cells. We also identified various alternatively spliced forms of the TCR zeta chain resulting from the deletion of individual exons II, VI, or VII, or a combined deletion of exons V and VI; VI and VII; II, III, and IV; or V, VI, and VII in SLE T cells. The frequency of the deletion splice variants was significantly higher in SLE than in control samples (P = 0.004). These variations were observed in cDNA and may not reflect the status of the genomic DNA. CONCLUSION These findings demonstrate that heterogeneous mutations/polymorphisms and alternative splicing of TCR zeta chain cDNA are more frequent in SLE T cells than in T cells from non-SLE subjects and may underlie the molecular basis of known T cell signaling abnormalities in this disease.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Aged
- Aged, 80 and over
- Alternative Splicing
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/blood
- Arthritis, Rheumatoid/genetics
- Base Sequence
- Cloning, Molecular
- DNA Primers/chemistry
- Female
- Humans
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/blood
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/genetics
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Mutation, Missense
- Polymorphism, Genetic
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta/genetics
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Severity of Illness Index
- Signal Transduction
- T-Lymphocytes/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Nambiar
- Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910-7500, USA
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22
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Sekigawa I, Matsushita M, Lee S, Maeda N, Ogasawara H, Kaneko H, Iida N, Hashimoto H. A possible pathogenic role of CD8+ T cells and their derived cytokine, IL-16, in SLE. Autoimmunity 2001; 33:37-44. [PMID: 11204252 DOI: 10.3109/08916930108994108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Current investigations into the role of CD8+ T cells and their derived cytokine, interleukin (IL)-16, in the induction of CD4+ T cell abnormalities in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) were reviewed and discussed on the basis of results mainly obtained in our laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Sekigawa
- Department of Medicine, Juntendo University Izu-Nagaoka Hospital, Shizuoka, Japan
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23
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Nambiar MP, Enyedy EJ, Warke VG, Krishnan S, Dennis G, Kammer GM, Tsokos GC. Polymorphisms/mutations of TCR-zeta-chain promoter and 3' untranslated region and selective expression of TCR zeta-chain with an alternatively spliced 3' untranslated region in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Autoimmun 2001; 16:133-42. [PMID: 11247639 DOI: 10.1006/jaut.2000.0475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A vast majority of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients display decreased expression of TCR zeta-chain mRNA, a critical signaling molecule implicated in the selection of the TCR repertoire and in the prevention of autoimmunity. To identify the molecular mechanisms involved in the downregulation of TCR zeta-chain transcripts in SLE T cells, we investigated the possibility of polymorphisms/mutations in the promoter and the 3' untranslated region. PCR, cloning and sequence analysis of the promoter region from the genomic DNA showed significantly higher number of polymorphisms in SLE T cells compared to non-SLE control subjects (P = 0.044). Promoter sequence was also analysed from granulocytes to delineate the possibility of somatic mutations in activated SLE T cells. Promoter polymorphisms were significantly higher in granulocytes of SLE patients compared to non-SLE controls (P = 0.048), suggesting that these polymorphisms were of genomic origin. Nucleotide analysis of the promoter sequence revealed a -76T insertion compared to the published sequence, in all of the SLE samples and controls. RT-PCR analysis of the TCR zeta-chain 3' untranslated region showed a 344 bp product in addition to the expected 906 bp product. Cloning and sequence analysis of the 344 bp product indicated that it is an alternatively spliced form with both splicing donor and acceptor sites, resulting in deletion of nucleotides 672-1233 of TCR zeta-chain mRNA. Unlike the nomal TCR zeta-chain, the expression of TCR zeta-chain with the alternatively spliced 344 bp 3' untranslated region was higher in SLE T cells compared to non-SLE controls. The number of mutations/polymorphisms in the 906 bp TCR zeta-chain 3' untranslated region were significantly higher in SLE T cells compared to non-SLE subjects (P = 0.032). Frequent mutations/polymorphisms and aberrant splicing of the downstream 3' untranslated region may affect the stability and/or transport of TCR zeta-chain mRNA, leading to its downregulation in SLE T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Nambiar
- Department of Cellular Injury, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Building 503, Robert Grant Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20910-7500, USA
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24
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Abstract
During the past five years, there has been an intense interest in studying candidate susceptibility genes for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Many such studies have been focused on candidates located on chromosome 1, demonstrating association of certain genetic variants with SLE. Some of the tested candidate genes were chosen because they encode molecules with relevant immunological functions that may play a role in the pathogenesis of SLE. More recently, the identification of genomic segments linked to SLE has suggested novel positional candidate genes. Thus far, there is considerable evidence supporting that multiple genes on this chromosome contribute to the development and expression of SLE. This review highlights the genetic loci located on chromosome 1 that have recently been associated with SLE. These include loci encoding the tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2), complement component C1q, Fcgamma receptors, T cell receptor zeta chain, interleukin-10 (IL-10), poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), and HRES-1.
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MESH Headings
- Antigens, CD/genetics
- Chromosome Mapping
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 1
- Complement C1q/genetics
- Genetic Predisposition to Disease
- Humans
- Interleukin-10/genetics
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerases/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, IgG/genetics
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type II
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Affiliation(s)
- B P Tsao
- UCLA Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1670, USA
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