Cell cycle dynamics in the reprogramming of cellular identity

Glutathione accelerates the cell cycle and cellular reprogramming in plant regeneration

The plasticity of plant cells underlies their wide capacity to regenerate, with increasing evidence in plants and animals implicating cell-cycle dynamics in cellular reprogramming. To investigate the cell cycle during cellular reprogramming, we developed a comprehensive set of cell-cycle-phase markers in the Arabidopsis root. Using single-cell RNA sequencing profiles and live imaging during regeneration, we found that a subset of cells near an ablation injury dramatically increases division rate by truncating G1 phase. Cells in G1 undergo a transient nuclear peak of glutathione (GSH) prior to coordinated entry into S phase, followed by rapid divisions and cellular reprogramming. A symplastic block of the ground tissue impairs regeneration, which is rescued by exogenous GSH. We propose a model in which GSH from the outer tissues is released upon injury, licensing an exit from G1 near the wound to induce rapid cell division and reprogramming.

Glutathione accelerates the cell cycle and cellular reprogramming in plant regeneration

The plasticity of plant cells underlies their wide capacity to regenerate, with increasing evidence in plants and animals implicating cell cycle dynamics in cellular reprogramming. To investigate the cell cycle during cellular reprogramming, we developed a comprehensive set of cell cycle phase markers in the Arabidopsis root. Using single-cell RNA-seq profiles and live imaging during regeneration, we found that a subset of cells near an ablation injury dramatically increases division rate by truncating G1. Cells in G1 undergo a transient nuclear peak of glutathione (GSH) prior to coordinated entry into S phase followed by rapid divisions and cellular reprogramming. A symplastic block of the ground tissue impairs regeneration, which is rescued by exogenous GSH. We propose a model in which GSH from the outer tissues is released upon injury licensing an exit from G1 near the wound to induce rapid cell division and reprogramming.

Study on antihepatocellular carcinoma effect of 6-shogaol and curcumin through network-based pharmacological and cellular assay

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma currently has the third highest mortality rate in the world. Patients with hepatocellular carcinoma are on the rise and at a younger age, but research into the pharmacological effects of cancer is mostly single-component, and natural plant products can have additive or synergistic effects that can better amplify the effects of intervention in cancer.

Aim

To evaluate the synergistic therapeutic effects of 6-shogaol and curcumin against hepatocellular carcinoma line HepG2 cells.

Methods

In this study, a network pharmacology approach was used to predict and validate the mol ecular targets and pathways of the hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) of 6-shogaol and curcumin in combination and to investigate their mechanism of action. The results were also validated by cellular assays. HepG2 cells were treated with 6-shogaol and curcumin as well as the combination of the two. The combination index of 6-shogaol and curcumin in HepG2 cells was calculated using Compusyn software according to the Chou-Talalay equation. The synergistic anti-cancer effect was next investigated by MTT assay, apoptosis assay and cell cycle assay. The combined anti-hepatocellular carcinoma effect of the Ras-mediated PI3K/AKT and MAPK signalling pathways was analysed using protein blotting assays.

Results

A network pharmacology-based screening identified 72 core targets of 6-curcumin and curcumin in hepatocellular carcinoma, and predicted that the main signalling pathway is the Ras signalling pathway. The anti-cancer effects of 6-shogaol and curcumin were validated in cell-based assays and the optimal synergistic concentrations of 5 μmoL/L for 6-shogaol and 30 μmoL/L for curcumin were determined. 6-shogaol and curcumin synergistically blocked the cell cycle in the G2/M phase and promoted apoptosis. Immunoblot analysis confirmed for the first time the combined action of both in down-regulating the Ras-mediated PI3K/AKT and MAPK signaling pathways. In addition, 6-shogaol and curcumin acting together downregulated Cyclin-B, CDK-1, Bcl-2, and upregulated BAX.

Conclusion

6-shogaol and curcumin act synergistically to alter the morphology of hepatocellular carcinoma cells, block the cell cycle in the G2/M phase, inhibit proliferation and division, and effectively promote late apoptosis. The combined action of these two components provides a theoretical basis for the further development of novel anti-liver cancer products.

The Principle of Cortical Development and Evolution

Human's robust cognitive abilities, including creativity and language, are made possible, at least in large part, by evolutionary changes made to the cerebral cortex. This paper reviews the biology and evolution of mammalian cortical radial glial cells (primary neural stem cells) and introduces the concept that a genetically step wise process, based on a core molecular pathway already in use, is the evolutionary process that has molded cortical neurogenesis. The core mechanism, which has been identified in our recent studies, is the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-bone morphogenic protein 7 (BMP7)-GLI3 repressor form (GLI3R)-sonic hedgehog (SHH) positive feedback loop. Additionally, I propose that the molecular basis for cortical evolutionary dwarfism, exemplified by the lissencephalic mouse which originated from a larger gyrencephalic ancestor, is an increase in SHH signaling in radial glia, that antagonizes ERK-BMP7 signaling. Finally, I propose that: (1) SHH signaling is not a key regulator of primate cortical expansion and folding; (2) human cortical radial glial cells do not generate neocortical interneurons; (3) human-specific genes may not be essential for most cortical expansion. I hope this review assists colleagues in the field, guiding research to address gaps in our understanding of cortical development and evolution.

Pas de deux: the coordinated coupling of erythroid differentiation with the cell cycle

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Recent work reveals that cell cycle duration and structure are remodeled in lock-step with distinct stages of erythroid differentiation. These cell cycle features have regulatory roles in differentiation, beyond the generic function of increasing cell number.

RECENT FINDINGS

Developmental progression through the early erythroid progenitor stage (known as colony-forming-erythroid, or 'CFU-e') is characterized by gradual shortening of G1 phase of the cycle. This process culminates in a key transcriptional switch to erythroid terminal differentiation (ETD) that is synchronized with, and dependent on, S phase progression. Further, the CFU-e/ETD switch takes place during an unusually short S phase, part of an exceptionally short cell cycle that is characterized by globally fast replication fork speeds. Cell cycle and S phase speed can alter developmental events during erythroid differentiation, through pathways that are targeted by glucocorticoid and erythropoietin signaling during the erythroid stress response.

SUMMARY

There is close inter-dependence between cell cycle structure and duration, S phase and replication fork speeds, and erythroid differentiation stage. Further, modulation of cell cycle structure and speed cycle impacts developmental progression and cell fate decisions during erythroid differentiation. These pathways may offer novel mechanistic insights and potential therapeutic targets.

The long and winding road of reprogramming-induced rejuvenation

Organismal aging is inherently connected to the aging of its constituent cells and systems. Reducing the biological age of the organism may be assisted by reducing the age of its cells - an approach exemplified by partial cell reprogramming through the expression of Yamanaka factors or exposure to chemical cocktails. It is crucial to protect cell type identity during partial reprogramming, as cells need to retain or rapidly regain their functions following the treatment. Another critical issue is the ability to quantify biological age as reprogrammed older cells acquire younger states. We discuss recent advances in reprogramming-induced rejuvenation and offer a critical review of this procedure and its relationship to the fundamental nature of aging. We further comparatively analyze partial reprogramming, full reprogramming and transdifferentiation approaches, assess safety concerns and emphasize the importance of distinguishing rejuvenation from dedifferentiation. Finally, we highlight translational opportunities that the reprogramming-induced rejuvenation approach offers.

Retrospective identification of cell-intrinsic factors that mark pluripotency potential in rare somatic cells

Pluripotency can be induced in somatic cells by the expression of OCT4, KLF4, SOX2, and MYC. Usually only a rare subset of cells reprogram, and the molecular characteristics of this subset remain unknown. We apply retrospective clone tracing to identify and characterize the rare human fibroblasts primed for reprogramming. These fibroblasts showed markers of increased cell cycle speed and decreased fibroblast activation. Knockdown of a fibroblast activation factor identified by our analysis increased the reprogramming efficiency. We provide evidence for a unified model in which cells can move into and out of the primed state over time, explaining how reprogramming appears deterministic at short timescales and stochastic at long timescales. Furthermore, inhibiting the activity of LSD1 enlarged the pool of cells that were primed for reprogramming. Thus, even homogeneous cell populations can exhibit heritable molecular variability that can dictate whether individual rare cells will reprogram or not.

Cell reprogramming in a predictable manner on the superhydrophobic microwell array chip

Reprogramming of somatic cells into the pluripotent state is stochastic and inefficient using the conventional culture plates. Novel micro-culture systems employing precisely controlled biophysical cues can improve the reprogramming efficiencies dramatically. Here we perform iPSC induction on our previously developed superhydrophobic microwell array chip (SMAR-chip) where cells undergo distinctive morphology change, switching from 2D monolayers to 3D clumps, and develop into bona fide colonies in more than 90% of the microwells. The PDMS substrate, together with the microwell structure and the superhydrophobic layer constitute a well-controlled microenvironment favorable for the morphogenesis and pluripotency induction. Investigation of the molecular roadmap demonstrates that the SMAR-chip promotes the transition from the initiation phase to the maturation phase and overcomes the roadblocks for reprogramming. In addition, the SMAR-chip also promotes the reprogramming of human cells, opening our method for translational applications. In summary, our study provides a novel platform for efficient cell reprogramming and emphasizes the advantages of employing the insoluble microenvironmental cues for the precise control of cell fate conversion.

Calling long distance: Cell cycle-dependent Ca2+ flows connect stem cells across regeneration tissues

How adult stem cells signal in vivo over time to coordinate their fate and behavior across self-renewing tissues remains a challenging question. In this issue, Moore et al. (2023. J. Cell Biol.https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.202302095) combine high-resolution live imaging in mice with machine learning tools to reveal temporally regulated tissue-scale patterns of Ca2+ signaling orchestrated by cycling basal stem cells of the skin epidermis.

Human embryonic stem cells exert antitumor effects on prostate cancer cells in a co-culture microenvironment

Prostate cancer is currently the most common malignancy among men. Given the limitations of current conventional anticancer therapies, new high-risk treatments are urgently needed. Previous studies have shown that embryonic stem cells (ESCs) can reverse the tumorigenic phenotype of tumor cells. However, there are still challenges in using human ESCs (hESCs) directly in cancer treatment. To facilitate the practical application of hESCs, we established a co-culture system consisting of prostate cancer cell lines and hESCs and investigated the antitumor activity of the supernatant of the co-culture system (Co-Sp) in vitro and in vivo, as well as the underlying mechanisms involved. The Co-Sp decreased the viability of prostate cancer cells in a concentration-dependent manner, significantly inhibited colony formation, and induced cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. In addition, Co-Sp promoted apoptosis of prostate cancer cells and inhibited cell migration and invasion. In vivo studies also revealed that Co-Sp inhibited tumor growth in the xenograft model. Mechanistic studies showed that Co-Sp reduced the expression of cyclin D1, cyclin E, CDK4, CDK2, MMP-9, MMP-1, and Bcl-2, and increased the expression of p21, cleaved caspase-9, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved PARP, and Bax in prostate cancer cells. Furthermore, the Co-Sp decreased the phosphorylation of PI3K, AKT, and mTOR in cells and tumor tissues. Taken together, our results indicated that the Co-Sp has potent antitumor activity and could directly inhibit tumor growth. Our findings provide a new and effective way for the application of hESCs in cancer therapy and contribute to a new strategy for clinical stem cell therapy.

Retrospective identification of intrinsic factors that mark pluripotency potential in rare somatic cells

Pluripotency can be induced in somatic cells by the expression of the four "Yamanaka" factors OCT4, KLF4, SOX2, and MYC. However, even in homogeneous conditions, usually only a rare subset of cells admit reprogramming, and the molecular characteristics of this subset remain unknown. Here, we apply retrospective clone tracing to identify and characterize the individual human fibroblast cells that are primed for reprogramming. These fibroblasts showed markers of increased cell cycle speed and decreased fibroblast activation. Knockdown of a fibroblast activation factor identified by our analysis led to increased reprogramming efficiency, identifying it as a barrier to reprogramming. Changing the frequency of reprogramming by inhibiting the activity of LSD1 led to an enlarging of the pool of cells that were primed for reprogramming. Our results show that even homogeneous cell populations can exhibit heritable molecular variability that can dictate whether individual rare cells will reprogram or not.

Defined Physicochemical Cues Steering Direct Neuronal Reprogramming on Colloidal Self-Assembled Patterns (cSAPs)

Direct neuronal reprogramming of somatic cells into induced neurons (iNs) has been recently established as a promising approach to generating neuron cells. Previous studies have reported that the biophysical cues of the in vitro microenvironment are potent modulators in the cell fate decision; thus, the present study explores the effects of a customized pattern (named colloidal self-assembled patterns, cSAPs) on iN generation from human fibroblasts using small molecules. The result revealed that the cSAP, composed of binary particles in a hexagonal-close-packed (hcp) geometry, is capable of improving neuronal reprogramming efficiency and steering the ratio of the iN subtypes. Cells exhibited distinct cell morphology, upregulated cell adhesion markers (i.e., SDC1 and ITGAV), enriched signaling pathways (i.e., Hippo and Wnt), and chromatin remodeling on the cSAP compared to those on the control substrates. The result also showed that the iN subtype specification on cSAP was surface-dependent; therefore, the defined physicochemical cue from each cSAP is exclusive. Our findings show that direct cell reprogramming can be manipulated through specific biophysical cues on the artificial matrix, which is significant in cell transdifferentiation and lineage conversion.

The role of specialized cell cycles during erythroid lineage development: insights from single-cell RNA sequencing

Early erythroid progenitors known as CFU-e undergo multiple self-renewal cell cycles. The CFU-e developmental stage ends with the onset of erythroid terminal differentiation (ETD). The transition from CFU-e to ETD is a critical cell fate decision that determines erythropoietic rate. Here we review recent insights into the regulation of this transition, garnered from flow cytometric and single-cell RNA sequencing studies. We find that the CFU-e/ETD transition is a rapid S phase-dependent transcriptional switch. It takes place during an S phase that is much shorter than in preceding or subsequent cycles, as a result of globally faster replication forks. Furthermore, it is preceded by cycles in which G1 becomes gradually shorter. These dramatic cell cycle and S phase remodeling events are directly linked to regulation of the CFU-e/ETD switch. Moreover, regulators of erythropoietic rate exert their effects by modulating cell cycle duration and S phase speed. Glucocorticoids increase erythropoietic rate by inducing the CDK inhibitor p57^KIP2, which slows replication forks, inhibiting the CFU-e/ETD switch. Conversely, erythropoietin promotes induction of ETD by shortening the cycle. S phase shortening was reported during cell fate decisions in non-erythroid lineages, suggesting a fundamentally new developmental role for cell cycle speed.

Differential condensation of sister chromatids acts with Cdc6 to ensure asynchronous S-phase entry in Drosophila male germline stem cell lineage

During Drosophila melanogaster male germline stem cell (GSC) asymmetric division, preexisting old versus newly synthesized histones H3 and H4 are asymmetrically inherited. However, the biological outcomes of this phenomenon have remained unclear. Here, we tracked old and new histones throughout the GSC cell cycle through the use of high spatial and temporal resolution microscopy. We found unique features that differ between old and new histone-enriched sister chromatids, including differences in nucleosome density, chromosomal condensation, and H3 Ser10 phosphorylation. These distinct chromosomal features lead to their differential association with Cdc6, a pre-replication complex component, and subsequent asynchronous DNA replication initiation in the resulting daughter cells. Disruption of asymmetric histone inheritance abolishes differential Cdc6 association and asynchronous S-phase entry, demonstrating that histone asymmetry acts upstream of these critical cell-cycle progression events. Furthermore, disruption of these GSC-specific chromatin features leads to GSC defects, indicating a connection between histone inheritance, cell-cycle progression, and cell fate determination.

EpoR stimulates rapid cycling and larger red cells during mouse and human erythropoiesis

The erythroid terminal differentiation program couples sequential cell divisions with progressive reductions in cell size. The erythropoietin receptor (EpoR) is essential for erythroblast survival, but its other functions are not well characterized. Here we use Epor-/- mouse erythroblasts endowed with survival signaling to identify novel non-redundant EpoR functions. We find that, paradoxically, EpoR signaling increases red cell size while also increasing the number and speed of erythroblast cell cycles. EpoR-regulation of cell size is independent of established red cell size regulation by iron. High erythropoietin (Epo) increases red cell size in wild-type mice and in human volunteers. The increase in mean corpuscular volume (MCV) outlasts the duration of Epo treatment and is not the result of increased reticulocyte number. Our work shows that EpoR signaling alters the relationship between cycling and cell size. Further, diagnostic interpretations of increased MCV should now include high Epo levels and hypoxic stress.

Anticancer Activity of Propolis and Its Compounds

Propolis is a natural material that honey bees (Apis mellifera) produce from various botanical sources. The therapeutic activity of propolis, including antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory effects, have been known since antiquity. Cancer is one of the major burdens of disease worldwide, therefore, numerous studies are being conducted to develop new chemotherapeutic agents and treatments for cancer. Propolis is a rich source of biologically active compounds, which affect numerous signaling pathways regulating crucial cellular processes. The results of the latest research show that propolis can inhibit proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis of cancer cells and stimulate apoptosis. Moreover, it may influence the tumor microenvironment and multidrug resistance of cancers. This review briefly summarizes the molecular mechanisms of anticancer activity of propolis and its compounds and highlights the potential benefits of propolis to reduce the side effects of chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

EZH2 as a Potential Target for NAFLD Therapy

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a complex disease that is affected by genetic predisposition and epigenetic modification. Deregulation of epigenetic pathways is now recognized as a frequent event in NAFLD, and understanding the mechanistic roles of these epigenetic factors may lead to new strategies for NAFLD treatment. Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) catalyzes methylation on Lys 27 of histone H3, which leads to chromatin compaction and gene silencing. EZH2 regulates embryonic development and cell lineage determination and is related to many human diseases. Recent studies show that EZH2 has critical roles in liver development, homeostasis, and regeneration. Moreover, aberrant activation of EZH2 promotes NAFLD progression. Several EZH2 inhibitors have been developed and studied both in vitro and in clinical trials. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the role of EZH2 in NAFLD and highlight its potential as a novel therapeutic target for NAFLD treatment.

The shifting shape and functional specializations of the cell cycle during lineage development

Essentially all cell cycling in multicellular organisms in vivo takes place in the context of lineage differentiation. This notwithstanding, the regulation of the cell cycle is often assumed to be generic, independent of tissue or developmental stage. Here we review developmental-stage-specific cell cycle adaptations that may influence developmental decisions, in mammalian erythropoiesis and in other lineages. The length of the cell cycle influences the balance between self-renewal and differentiation in multiple tissues, and may determine lineage fate. Shorter cycles contribute to the efficiency of reprogramming somatic cells into induced pluripotency stem cells and help maintain the pluripotent state. While the plasticity of G1 length is well established, the speed of S phase is emerging as a novel regulated parameter that may influence cell fate transitions in the erythroid lineage, in neural tissue and in embryonic stem cells. A slow S phase may stabilize the self-renewal state, whereas S phase shortening may favor a cell fate change. In the erythroid lineage, functional approaches and single-cell RNA-sequencing show that a key transcriptional switch, at the transition from self-renewal to differentiation, is synchronized with and dependent on S phase. This specific S phase is shorter, as a result of a genome-wide increase in the speed of replication forks. Furthermore, there is progressive shortening in G1 in the period preceding this switch. Together these studies suggest an integrated regulatory landscape of the cycle and differentiation programs, where cell cycle adaptations are controlled by, and in turn feed back on, the propagation of developmental trajectories. This article is categorized under: Biological Mechanisms > Cell Fates Developmental Biology > Stem Cell Biology and Regeneration Developmental Biology > Lineages.

The palette of techniques for cell cycle analysis

The cell division cycle is the generational period of cellular growth and propagation. Cell cycle progression needs to be highly regulated to preserve genomic fidelity while increasing cell number. In multicellular organisms, the cell cycle must also coordinate with cell fate specification during development and tissue homeostasis. Altered cell cycle dynamics play a central role also in a number of pathophysiological processes. Thus, extensive effort has been made to define the biochemical machineries that execute the cell cycle and their regulation, as well as implementing more sensitive and accurate cell cycle measurements. Here, we review the available techniques for cell cycle analysis, revisiting the assumptions behind conventional population-based measurements and discussing new tools to better address cell cycle heterogeneity in the single-cell era. We weigh the strengths, weaknesses, and trade-offs of methods designed to measure temporal aspects of the cell cycle. Finally, we discuss emerging techniques for capturing cell cycle speed at single-cell resolution in live animals.

Diosmetin Inhibits Cell Proliferation, Induces Cell Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest in Liver Cancer

Objective

Diosmetin (DIOS) has been confirmed to possess anti-cancer effects in some types of tumors. However, it remains unclear whether DIOS exerts anti-cancer effects on liver cancer. Thus, our purpose was to observe the effect of DIOS on cell proliferation, cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in human liver cancer cells.

Materials and Methods

The cell viability of HepG2 and HCC-LM3 cells under different concentrations of DIOS was detected using MTT assay. The cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest were analyzed by flow cytometry. The expression levels of apoptosis/cell cycle-related proteins including P53, Bcl-2, Bax, cleaved-caspase3, cleaved-caspase8, cleaved-PARP, Bak, cdc2, cyclinB1 and P21 were measured using Western blot. HepG2 cells were transfected by checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1)-small interfering RNA (siRNA) and checkpoint kinase 2 (Chk2)-siRNA, respectively. After that, cell cycle was detected.

Results

DIOS significantly suppressed cell proliferation and induced cell apoptosis of HepG2 cells and HCC-LM3 cells. Moreover, DIOS promoted cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase. Western blot results showed that DIOS significantly suppressed the expression levels of Bcl-2, cdc2, cyclinB1, and promoted the expression levels of Bax, cleaved-caspase3, cleaved-caspase8, cleaved-PARP, Bak, P53, and P21. The G2/M phase arrest was observed in HepG2 cells transfected with Chk2-siRNA, while the G2/M phase arrest was not obvious in HepG2 cells transfected with Chk1-siRNA.

Conclusion

Our findings revealed that DIOS could inhibit cell proliferation and promote cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in liver cancer. Furthermore, DIOS could induce G2/M cell cycle arrest in HepG2 cell via targeting Chk2.

Emerging roles of metazoan cell cycle regulators as coordinators of the cell cycle and differentiation

In multicellular organisms, cell proliferation must be tightly coordinated with other developmental processes to form functional tissues and organs. Despite significant advances in our understanding of how the cell cycle is controlled by conserved cell-cycle regulators (CCRs), how the cell cycle is coordinated with cell differentiation in metazoan organisms and how CCRs contribute to this process remain poorly understood. Here, we review the emerging roles of metazoan CCRs as intracellular proliferation-differentiation coordinators in multicellular organisms. We illustrate how major CCRs regulate cellular events that are required for cell fate acquisition and subsequent differentiation. To this end, CCRs employ diverse mechanisms, some of which are separable from those underpinning the conventional cell-cycle-regulatory functions of CCRs. By controlling cell-type-specific specification/differentiation processes alongside the progression of the cell cycle, CCRs enable spatiotemporal coupling between differentiation and cell proliferation in various developmental contexts in vivo. We discuss the significance and implications of this underappreciated role of metazoan CCRs for development, disease and evolution.

Reconstruction of Ewing Sarcoma Developmental Context from Mass-Scale Transcriptomics Reveals Characteristics of EWSR1-FLI1 Permissibility

Ewing sarcoma is an aggressive pediatric cancer of enigmatic cellular origins typically resulting from a single translocation event t (11; 22) (q24; q12). The resulting fusion gene, EWSR1-FLI1, is toxic or unstable in most primary tissues. Consequently, attempts to model Ewing sarcomagenesis have proven unsuccessful thus far, highlighting the need to identify the cellular features which permit stable EWSR1-FLI1 expression. By re-analyzing publicly available RNA-Sequencing data with manifold learning techniques, we uncovered a group of Ewing-like tissues belonging to a developmental trajectory between pluripotent, neuroectodermal, and mesodermal cell states. Furthermore, we demonstrated that EWSR1-FLI1 expression levels control the activation of these developmental trajectories within Ewing sarcoma cells. Subsequent analysis and experimental validation demonstrated that the capability to resolve R-loops and mitigate replication stress are probable prerequisites for stable EWSR1-FLI1 expression in primary tissues. Taken together, our results demonstrate how EWSR1-FLI1 hijacks developmental gene programs and advances our understanding of Ewing sarcomagenesis.