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Frost I, Mendoza AM, Chiou TT, Kim P, Aizenberg J, Kohn DB, De Oliveira SN, Weiss PS, Jonas SJ. Fluorinated Silane-Modified Filtroporation Devices Enable Gene Knockout in Human Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:41299-41309. [PMID: 37616579 PMCID: PMC10485797 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c07045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Intracellular delivery technologies that are cost-effective, non-cytotoxic, efficient, and cargo-agnostic are needed to enable the manufacturing of cell-based therapies as well as gene manipulation for research applications. Current technologies capable of delivering large cargoes, such as plasmids and CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoproteins (RNPs), are plagued with high costs and/or cytotoxicity and often require substantial specialized equipment and reagents, which may not be available in resource-limited settings. Here, we report an intracellular delivery technology that can be assembled from materials available in most research laboratories, thus democratizing access to intracellular delivery for researchers and clinicians in low-resource areas of the world. These filtroporation devices permeabilize cells by pulling them through the pores of a cell culture insert by the application of vacuum available in biosafety cabinets. In a format that costs less than $10 in materials per experiment, we demonstrate the delivery of fluorescently labeled dextran, expression plasmids, and RNPs for gene knockout to Jurkat cells and human CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell populations with delivery efficiencies of up to 40% for RNP knockout and viabilities of >80%. We show that functionalizing the surfaces of the filters with fluorinated silane moieties further enhances the delivery efficiency. These devices are capable of processing 500,000 to 4 million cells per experiment, and when combined with a 3D-printed vacuum application chamber, this throughput can be straightforwardly increased 6-12-fold in parallel experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaura
M. Frost
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- UCLA
Medical Scientist Training Program, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- Department
of Pediatrics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Alexandra M. Mendoza
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California, Los Angeles, Los
Angeles, California 90095, United States
- California
NanoSystems Institute, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Tzu-Ting Chiou
- Department
of Pediatrics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Philseok Kim
- John A. Paulson
School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Joanna Aizenberg
- John A. Paulson
School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Donald B. Kohn
- Department
of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University
of California, Los Angeles, Los
Angeles, California 90095, United States
- Department
of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- Eli
and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Satiro N. De Oliveira
- Department
of Pediatrics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Paul S. Weiss
- Department
of Bioengineering, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California, Los Angeles, Los
Angeles, California 90095, United States
- California
NanoSystems Institute, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University
of California, Los Angeles, Los
Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Steven J. Jonas
- Department
of Pediatrics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- California
NanoSystems Institute, University of California,
Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- Eli
and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- Children’s
Discovery and Innovation Institute, University
of California, Los Angeles, Los
Angeles, California 90095, United States
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2
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Danaeifar M. Recent advances in gene therapy: genetic bullets to the root of the problem. Clin Exp Med 2022:10.1007/s10238-022-00925-x. [PMID: 36284069 DOI: 10.1007/s10238-022-00925-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Genetics and molecular genetic techniques have changed many perspectives and paradigms in medicine. Using genetic methods, many diseases have been cured or alleviated. Gene therapy, in its simplest definition, is application of genetic materials and related techniques to treat various human diseases. Evaluation of the trends in the field of medicine and therapeutics clarifies that gene therapy has attracted a lot of attention due to its powerful potential to treat a number of diseases. There are various genetic materials that can be used in gene therapy such as DNA, single- and double-stranded RNA, siRNA and shRNA. The main gene editing techniques used for in vitro and in vivo gene modification are ZNF, TALEN and CRISPR-Cas9. The latter has increased hopes for more precise and efficient gene targeting as it requires two separate recognition sites which makes it more specific and can also cause rapid and sufficient cleavage within the target sequence. There must be carriers for delivering genes to the target tissue. The most commonly used carriers for this purpose are viral vectors such as adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses and lentiviruses. Non-viral vectors consist of bacterial vectors, liposomes, dendrimers and nanoparticles.
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Chatterjee S, Sivanandam V, Wong KKM. Adeno-Associated Virus and Hematopoietic Stem Cells: The Potential of Adeno-Associated Virus Hematopoietic Stem Cells in Genetic Medicines. Hum Gene Ther 2021; 31:542-552. [PMID: 32253938 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2020.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Adeno-associated virus (AAV)-based vectors have transformed into powerful elements of genetic medicine with proven therapeutic efficacy and a good safety profile. Over the years, efforts to transduce hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) with AAV2 vectors have, however, been challenging. While there was evidence that AAV2 delivered vector genomes to primitive, quiescent, multipotential, self-renewing, in vivo engrafting HSCs, transgene expression was elusive. In this study, we review the evolution of AAV transduction of HSC, starting with AAV2 vectors leading to the isolation of a family of naturally occurring AAVs from human CD34+ HSC, the AAVHSC. The stem cell-derived AAVHSCs have turned out to have remarkable potentials for genetic therapies well beyond the hematopoietic system. AAVHSCs have tropism for a wide variety of peripheral tissues, including the liver, muscle, and the retina. They cross the blood-brain barrier and transduce cells of the central nervous system. Preclinical gene therapy studies underway using AAVHSC vectors are discussed. We review the notable ability of AAVHSCs to mediate efficient, seamless homologous recombination in the absence of exogenous nuclease activity and discuss the therapeutic implications. We also discuss early results from an AAVHSC-based clinical gene therapy trial that is underway for the treatment of phenylketonuria. Thus, the stem cell-derived AAVHSC, offer a multifaceted platform for in vivo gene therapy and genome editing for the treatment of inherited diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saswati Chatterjee
- Department of Surgery, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California, USA
| | - Venkatesh Sivanandam
- Department of Surgery, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California, USA
| | - Kamehameha Kai-Min Wong
- Department of Hematology and Stem Cell Transplantation, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California, USA
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4
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Cortijo-Gutiérrez M, Sánchez-Hernández S, Tristán-Manzano M, Maldonado-Pérez N, Lopez-Onieva L, Real PJ, Herrera C, Marchal JA, Martin F, Benabdellah K. Improved Functionality of Integration-Deficient Lentiviral Vectors (IDLVs) by the Inclusion of IS 2 Protein Docks. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13081217. [PMID: 34452178 PMCID: PMC8401568 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13081217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Integration-deficient lentiviral vectors (IDLVs) have recently generated increasing interest, not only as a tool for transient gene delivery, but also as a technique for detecting off-target cleavage in gene-editing methodologies which rely on customized endonucleases (ENs). Despite their broad potential applications, the efficacy of IDLVs has historically been limited by low transgene expression and by the reduced sensitivity to detect low-frequency off-target events. We have previously reported that the incorporation of the chimeric sequence element IS2 into the long terminal repeat (LTR) of IDLVs increases gene expression levels, while also reducing the episome yield inside transduced cells. Our study demonstrates that the effectiveness of IDLVs relies on the balance between two parameters which can be modulated by the inclusion of IS2 sequences. In the present study, we explore new IDLV configurations harboring several elements based on IS2 modifications engineered to mediate more efficient transgene expression without affecting the targeted cell load. Of all the insulators and configurations analysed, the insertion of the IS2 into the 3′LTR produced the best results. After demonstrating a DAPI-low nuclear gene repositioning of IS2-containing episomes, we determined whether, in addition to a positive effect on transcription, the IS2 could improve the capture of IDLVs on double strand breaks (DSBs). Thus, DSBs were randomly generated, using the etoposide or locus-specific CRISPR-Cas9. Our results show that the IS2 element improved the efficacy of IDLV DSB detection. Altogether, our data indicate that the insertion of IS2 into the LTR of IDLVs improved, not only their transgene expression levels, but also their ability to be inserted into existing DSBs. This could have significant implications for the development of an unbiased detection tool for off-target cleavage sites from different specific nucleases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Cortijo-Gutiérrez
- GENYO, Centre for Genomics and Oncological Research, Genomic Medicine Department, Pfizer-University of Granada-Andalusian Regional Government, Health Sciences Technology Park, Av. de la Illustration 114, 18016 Granada, Spain; (M.C.-G.); (S.S.-H.); (M.T.-M.); (N.M.-P.); (F.M.)
| | - Sabina Sánchez-Hernández
- GENYO, Centre for Genomics and Oncological Research, Genomic Medicine Department, Pfizer-University of Granada-Andalusian Regional Government, Health Sciences Technology Park, Av. de la Illustration 114, 18016 Granada, Spain; (M.C.-G.); (S.S.-H.); (M.T.-M.); (N.M.-P.); (F.M.)
| | - María Tristán-Manzano
- GENYO, Centre for Genomics and Oncological Research, Genomic Medicine Department, Pfizer-University of Granada-Andalusian Regional Government, Health Sciences Technology Park, Av. de la Illustration 114, 18016 Granada, Spain; (M.C.-G.); (S.S.-H.); (M.T.-M.); (N.M.-P.); (F.M.)
| | - Noelia Maldonado-Pérez
- GENYO, Centre for Genomics and Oncological Research, Genomic Medicine Department, Pfizer-University of Granada-Andalusian Regional Government, Health Sciences Technology Park, Av. de la Illustration 114, 18016 Granada, Spain; (M.C.-G.); (S.S.-H.); (M.T.-M.); (N.M.-P.); (F.M.)
| | - Lourdes Lopez-Onieva
- GENYO, Centre for Genomics and Oncological Research, Molecular Oncology Department, Pfizer-University of Granada-Andalusian Regional Government, Health Sciences Technology Park, Av. de la Illustration 114, 18016 Granada, Spain; (L.L.-O.); (P.J.R.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology I, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, Avenida Fuentenueva s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Pedro J. Real
- GENYO, Centre for Genomics and Oncological Research, Molecular Oncology Department, Pfizer-University of Granada-Andalusian Regional Government, Health Sciences Technology Park, Av. de la Illustration 114, 18016 Granada, Spain; (L.L.-O.); (P.J.R.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology I, Faculty of Science, University of Granada, Avenida Fuentenueva s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain
- Personalized Oncology Group, Bio-Health Research Institute (ibs Granada), 18016 Granada, Spain
| | - Concha Herrera
- Maimonides Institute of Biomedical Research in Cordoba (IMIBIC), 14004 Cordoba, Spain;
- Department of Haematology, Reina Sofía University Hospital, 14004 Cordoba, Spain
| | - Juan Antonio Marchal
- Biomedical Research Institute (ibs. Granada), 18012 Granada, Spain;
- Biopathology and Regenerative Medicine Institute (IBIMER), Centre for Biomedical Research (CIBM), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain
- Department of Human Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain
- Excellence Research Unit: Modeling Nature (MNat), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain
| | - Francisco Martin
- GENYO, Centre for Genomics and Oncological Research, Genomic Medicine Department, Pfizer-University of Granada-Andalusian Regional Government, Health Sciences Technology Park, Av. de la Illustration 114, 18016 Granada, Spain; (M.C.-G.); (S.S.-H.); (M.T.-M.); (N.M.-P.); (F.M.)
| | - Karim Benabdellah
- GENYO, Centre for Genomics and Oncological Research, Genomic Medicine Department, Pfizer-University of Granada-Andalusian Regional Government, Health Sciences Technology Park, Av. de la Illustration 114, 18016 Granada, Spain; (M.C.-G.); (S.S.-H.); (M.T.-M.); (N.M.-P.); (F.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-958-715-500
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5
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Vijayraghavan S, Kantor B. A Protocol for the Production of Integrase-deficient Lentiviral Vectors for CRISPR/Cas9-mediated Gene Knockout in Dividing Cells. J Vis Exp 2017. [PMID: 29286484 DOI: 10.3791/56915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Lentiviral vectors are an ideal choice for delivering gene-editing components to cells due to their capacity for stably transducing a broad range of cells and mediating high levels of gene expression. However, their ability to integrate into the host cell genome enhances the risk of insertional mutagenicity and thus raises safety concerns and limits their usage in clinical settings. Further, the persistent expression of gene-editing components delivered by these integration-competent lentiviral vectors (ICLVs) increases the probability of promiscuous gene targeting. As an alternative, a new generation of integrase-deficient lentiviral vectors (IDLVs) has been developed that addresses many of these concerns. Here the production protocol of a new and improved IDLV platform for CRISPR-mediated gene editing and list the steps involved in the purification and concentration of such vectors is described and their transduction and gene-editing efficiency using HEK-293T cells was demonstrated. This protocol is easily scalable and can be used to generate high titer IDLVs that are capable of transducing cells in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, this protocol can be easily adapted for the production of ICLVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sriram Vijayraghavan
- Duke Viral Vector Core, Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine
| | - Boris Kantor
- Duke Viral Vector Core, Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine;
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6
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Alonso-Ferrero ME, van Til NP, Bartolovic K, Mata MF, Wagemaker G, Moulding D, Williams DA, Kinnon C, Waddington SN, Milsom MD, Howe SJ. Enhancement of mouse hematopoietic stem/progenitor cell function via transient gene delivery using integration-deficient lentiviral vectors. Exp Hematol 2017; 57:21-29. [PMID: 28911908 PMCID: PMC5731634 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2017.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 09/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Integration-deficient vectors (IdLVs) express genes transiently in dividing stem cells. Hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (HSPCs) can be programmed using IdLVs. HOXB4 or Angptl3 expression from IdLVs improves engraftment of transplanted HSPCs. Short-term gene delivery avoids the side effects associated with constitutive expression.
Integration-deficient lentiviruses (IdLVs) deliver genes effectively to tissues but are lost rapidly from dividing cells. This property can be harnessed to express transgenes transiently to manipulate cell biology. Here, we demonstrate the utility of short-term gene expression to improve functional potency of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) during transplantation by delivering HOXB4 and Angptl3 using IdLVs to enhance the engraftment of HSPCs. Constitutive overexpression of either of these genes is likely to be undesirable, but the transient nature of IdLVs reduces this risk and those associated with unsolicited gene expression in daughter cells. Transient expression led to increased multilineage hematopoietic engraftment in in vivo competitive repopulation assays without the side effects reported in constitutive overexpression models. Adult stem cell fate has not been programmed previously using IdLVs, but we demonstrate that these transient gene expression tools can produce clinically relevant alterations or be applied to investigate basic biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria E Alonso-Ferrero
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Niek P van Til
- Department of Hematology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Kerol Bartolovic
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Márcia F Mata
- Department of Bioengineering and Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Gerard Wagemaker
- Department of Hematology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Hacettepe University, Stem Cell Research and Development Center, Ankara, Turkey; Raisa Gorbacheva Memorial Research Institute for Pediatric Oncology and Hematology, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Dale Moulding
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - David A Williams
- Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Christine Kinnon
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Simon N Waddington
- Gene Transfer Technology Group, University College London Institute for Women's Health, London, UK; Antiviral Gene Therapy Research Unit, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Michael D Milsom
- Experimental Hematology Group, Heidelberg Institute for Stem Cell Technology and Experimental Medicine (HI-STEM) and the German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Steven J Howe
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK; Gene Transfer Technology Group, University College London Institute for Women's Health, London, UK
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7
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Integrase-Deficient Lentiviral Vector as an All-in-One Platform for Highly Efficient CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Gene Editing. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2017; 5:153-164. [PMID: 28497073 PMCID: PMC5424571 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2017.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The CRISPR/Cas9 systems have revolutionized the field of genome editing by providing unprecedented control over gene sequences and gene expression in many species, including humans. Lentiviral vectors (LVs) are one of the primary delivery platforms for the CRISPR/Cas9 system due to their ability to accommodate large DNA payloads and sustain robust expression in a wide range of dividing and non-dividing cells. However, long-term expression of LV-delivered Cas9/guide RNA may lead to undesirable off-target effects characterized by non-specific RNA-DNA interactions and off-target DNA cleavages. Integrase-deficient lentiviral vectors (IDLVs) present an attractive means for delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 components because: (1) they are capable of transducing a broad range of cells and tissues, (2) have superior packaging capacity compared to other vectors (e.g., adeno-associated viral vectors), and (3) they are expressed transiently and demonstrate very weak integration capability. In this manuscript, we aimed to establish IDLVs as a means for safe and efficient delivery of CRISPR/Cas9. To this end, we developed an all-in-one vector cassette with increased production efficacy and demonstrated that CRISPR/Cas9 delivered by the improved IDLV vectors can mediate rapid and robust gene editing in human embryonic kidney (HEK293T) cells and post-mitotic brain neurons in vivo, via transient expression and with higher gene-targeting specificity than the corresponding integrase-competent vectors.
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8
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Hoban MD, Lumaquin D, Kuo CY, Romero Z, Long J, Ho M, Young CS, Mojadidi M, Fitz-Gibbon S, Cooper AR, Lill GR, Urbinati F, Campo-Fernandez B, Bjurstrom CF, Pellegrini M, Hollis RP, Kohn DB. CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Correction of the Sickle Mutation in Human CD34+ cells. Mol Ther 2016; 24:1561-9. [PMID: 27406980 PMCID: PMC5113113 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2016.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeted genome editing technology can correct the sickle cell disease mutation of the β-globin gene in hematopoietic stem cells. This correction supports production of red blood cells that synthesize normal hemoglobin proteins. Here, we demonstrate that Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs) and the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 nuclease system can target DNA sequences around the sickle-cell mutation in the β-globin gene for site-specific cleavage and facilitate precise correction when a homologous donor template is codelivered. Several pairs of TALENs and multiple CRISPR guide RNAs were evaluated for both on-target and off-target cleavage rates. Delivery of the CRISPR/Cas9 components to CD34+ cells led to over 18% gene modification in vitro. Additionally, we demonstrate the correction of the sickle cell disease mutation in bone marrow derived CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells from sickle cell disease patients, leading to the production of wild-type hemoglobin. These results demonstrate correction of the sickle mutation in patient-derived CD34+ cells using CRISPR/Cas9 technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan D Hoban
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California USA
| | - Dianne Lumaquin
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California USA
| | - Caroline Y Kuo
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Zulema Romero
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California USA
| | - Joseph Long
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California USA
- Biology Department, California State University, Northridge, California, USA
| | - Michelle Ho
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California USA
| | - Courtney S Young
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Molecular Biology Interdepartmental PhD Program (MBIDP), University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Michelle Mojadidi
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California USA
| | - Sorel Fitz-Gibbon
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Institute for Genomics and Proteomics, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Aaron R Cooper
- Molecular Biology Interdepartmental PhD Program (MBIDP), University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Georgia R Lill
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California USA
| | - Fabrizia Urbinati
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California USA
| | - Beatriz Campo-Fernandez
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California USA
| | - Carmen F Bjurstrom
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California USA
| | - Matteo Pellegrini
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Institute for Genomics and Proteomics, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Roger P Hollis
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California USA
| | - Donald B Kohn
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California USA
- Eli & Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine & Stem Cell Research, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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