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Jin X, Si X, Lei X, Liu H, Shao A, Li L. Disruption of Dopamine Homeostasis Associated with Alteration of Proteins in Synaptic Vesicles: A Putative Central Mechanism of Parkinson's Disease Pathogenesis. Aging Dis 2024; 15:1204-1226. [PMID: 37815908 PMCID: PMC11081171 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2023.0821-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Vestigial dopaminergic cells in PD have selectivity for a sub-class of hypersensitive neurons with the nigrostriatal dopamine (DA) tract. DA is modulated in pre-synaptic nerve terminals to remain stable. To be specific, proteins at DA release sites that have a function of synthesizing and packing DA in cytoplasm, modulating release and reingestion, and changing excitability of neurons, display regional discrepancies that uncover relevancy of the observed sensitivity to neurodegenerative changes. Although the reasons of a majority of PD cases are still indistinct, heredity and environment are known to us to make significant influences. For decades, genetic analysis of PD patients with heredity in family have promoted our comprehension of pathogenesis to a great extent, which reveals correlative mechanisms including oxidative stress, abnormal protein homeostasis and mitochondrial dysfunction. In this review, we review the constitution of presynaptic vesicle related to DA homeostasis and describe the genetic and environmental evidence of presynaptic dysfunction that increase risky possibility of PD concerning intracellular vesicle transmission and their functional outcomes. We summarize alterations in synaptic vesicular proteins with great involvement in the reasons of some DA neurons highly vulnerable to neurodegenerative changes. We generalize different potential targets and therapeutic strategies for different pathogenic mechanisms, providing a reference for further studies of PD treatment in the future. But it remains to be further researched on this recently discovered and converging mechanism of vesicular dynamics and PD, which will provide a more profound comprehension and put up with new therapeutic tactics for PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuanxiang Jin
- The First School of Medicine, School of Information and Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Xiaoli Si
- Department of Neurology, the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Xiaoguang Lei
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, the First School of Clinical Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China.
| | - Huifang Liu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
| | - Anwen Shao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Disease, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Lingfei Li
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hangzhou First People’s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.
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Domenicale C, Magnabosco S, Morari M. Modeling Parkinson's disease in LRRK2 rodents. Neuronal Signal 2023; 7:NS20220040. [PMID: 37601008 PMCID: PMC10432857 DOI: 10.1042/ns20220040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are associated with familial and sporadic forms of Parkinson's disease (PD). Sporadic PD and LRRK2 PD share main clinical and neuropathological features, namely hypokinesia, degeneration of nigro-striatal dopamine neurons and α-synuclein aggregates in the form of Lewy bodies. Animals harboring the most common LRRK2 mutations, i.e. p.G2019S and p.R1441C/G, have been generated to replicate the parkinsonian phenotype and investigate the underlying pathogenic mechanisms. Disappointingly, however, LRRK2 rodents did not consistently phenocopy hypokinesia and nigro-striatal degeneration, or showed Lewy body-like aggregates. Instead, LRRK2 rodents manifested non-motor signs and dysregulated transmission at dopaminergic and non-dopaminergic synapses that are reminiscent of behavioral and functional network changes observed in the prodromal phase of the disease. LRRK2 rodents also manifested greater susceptibility to different parkinsonian toxins or stressors when subjected to dual-hit or multiple-hit protocols, confirming LRRK2 mutations as genetic risk factors. In conclusion, LRRK2 rodents represent a unique tool to identify the molecular mechanisms through which LRRK2 modulates the course and clinical presentations of PD and to study the interplay between genetic, intrinsic and environmental protective/risk factors in PD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Domenicale
- Department of Neuroscience and Rehabilitation, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Stefano Magnabosco
- Department of Neuroscience and Rehabilitation, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Michele Morari
- Department of Neuroscience and Rehabilitation, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
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Mata I, Salles P, Cornejo-Olivas M, Saffie P, Ross OA, Reed X, Bandres-Ciga S. LRRK2: Genetic mechanisms vs genetic subtypes. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2023; 193:133-154. [PMID: 36803807 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-85555-6.00018-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
In 2004, the identification of pathogenic variants in the LRRK2 gene across several families with autosomal dominant late-onset Parkinson's disease (PD) revolutionized our understanding of the role of genetics in PD. Previous beliefs that genetics in PD was limited to rare early-onset or familial forms of the disease were quickly dispelled. Currently, we recognize LRRK2 p.G2019S as the most common genetic cause of both sporadic and familial PD, with more than 100,000 affected carriers across the globe. The frequency of LRRK2 p.G2019S is also highly variable across populations, with some regions of Asian or Latin America reporting close to 0%, contrasting to Ashkenazi Jews or North African Berbers reporting up to 13% and 40%, respectively. Patients with LRRK2 pathogenic variants are clinically and pathologically heterogeneous, highlighting the age-related variable penetrance that also characterizes LRRK2-related disease. Indeed, the majority of patients with LRRK2-related disease are characterized by a relatively mild Parkinsonism with less motor symptoms with variable presence of α-synuclein and/or tau aggregates, with pathologic pleomorphism widely described. At a functional cellular level, it is likely that pathogenic variants mediate a toxic gain-of-function of the LRRK2 protein resulting in increased kinase activity perhaps in a cell-specific manner; by contrast, some LRRK2 variants appear to be protective reducing PD risk by decreasing the kinase activity. Therefore, employing this information to define appropriate patient populations for clinical trials of targeted kinase LRRK2 inhibition strategies is very promising and demonstrates a potential future application for PD using precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Mata
- Genomic Medicine Institute (GMI), Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States.
| | - Philippe Salles
- Corporación Centro de Trastornos del Movimiento (CETRAM), Lo Espejo, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mario Cornejo-Olivas
- Neurogenetics Research Center, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Neurológicas, Lima, Peru
| | - Paula Saffie
- Corporación Centro de Trastornos del Movimiento (CETRAM), Lo Espejo, Santiago, Chile
| | - Owen A Ross
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States
| | - Xylena Reed
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Sara Bandres-Ciga
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Center for Alzheimer's and Related Dementias, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
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Ho PWL, Li L, Liu HF, Choi ZYK, Chang EES, Pang SYY, Malki Y, Leung CT, Kung MHW, Ramsden DB, Ho SL. In vivo overexpression of synaptogyrin-3 promotes striatal synaptic dopamine uptake in LRRK2 R1441G mutant mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Brain Behav 2023; 13:e2886. [PMID: 36624932 PMCID: PMC9927849 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.2886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) mutation is a common genetic risk factor of Parkinson's disease (PD). Presynaptic dysfunction is an early pathogenic event associated with dopamine (DA) dysregulation in striatum of the brain. DA uptake activity of DA uptake transporter (DAT) affects synaptic plasticity and motor and non-motor behavior. Synaptogyrin-3 (SYNGR3) is part of the synaptogyrin family, especially abundant in brain. Previous in vitro studies demonstrated interaction between SYNGR3 and DAT. Reduced SYNGR3 expression was observed in human PD brains with unclear reasons. METHODS Here, we further explored whether inducing SYNGR3 expression can influence (i) cellular DA uptake using differentiated human SH-SY5Y neuronal cells, (ii) striatal synaptosomal DA uptake in a mutant LRRK2R1441G knockin mouse model of PD, and (iii) innate rodent behavior using the marble burying test. RESULTS Young LRRK2 mutant mice exhibited significantly lower SYNGR3 levels in striatum compared to age-matched wild-type (WT) controls, resembling level in aged WT mice. SYNGR3 is spatially co-localized with DAT at striatal presynaptic terminals, visualized by immuno-gold transmission electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry. Their protein-protein interaction was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation. Transient overexpression of SYNGR3 in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells increased cellular DA uptake activity without affecting total DAT levels. Inducing SYNGR3 overexpression by adeno-associated virus-7 (AAV7) injection in vivo into striatum increased ex vivo synaptosomal DA uptake in LRRK2 mutant mice and improved their innate marble burying behavior. CONCLUSION Brain SYNGR3 expression may be an important determinant to striatal DA homeostasis and synaptic function. Our preliminary behavioral test showed improved innate behavior after SYNGR3 overexpression in LRRK2 mutant mice, advocating further studies to determine the influence of SYNGR3 in the pathophysiology of DA neurons in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Wing-Lok Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Lingfei Li
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hui-Fang Liu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Zoe Yuen-Kiu Choi
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Eunice Eun Seo Chang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Shirley Yin-Yu Pang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yasine Malki
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chi-Ting Leung
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Michelle Hiu-Wai Kung
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - David Boyer Ramsden
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Shu-Leong Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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Zhang C, Chen S, Li X, Xu Q, Lin Y, Lin F, Yuan M, Zi Y, Cai J. Progress in Parkinson's disease animal models of genetic defects: Characteristics and application. Biomed Pharmacother 2022; 155:113768. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Revisiting the specificity and ability of phospho-S129 antibodies to capture alpha-synuclein biochemical and pathological diversity. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2022; 8:136. [PMID: 36266318 PMCID: PMC9584898 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-022-00388-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibodies against phosphorylated alpha-synuclein (aSyn) at S129 have emerged as the primary tools to investigate, monitor, and quantify aSyn pathology in the brain and peripheral tissues of patients with Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. Herein, we demonstrate that the co-occurrence of multiple pathology-associated C-terminal post-translational modifications (PTMs) (e.g., phosphorylation at Tyrosine 125 or truncation at residue 133 or 135) differentially influences the detection of pS129-aSyn species by pS129-aSyn antibodies. These observations prompted us to systematically reassess the specificity of the most commonly used pS129 antibodies against monomeric and aggregated forms of pS129-aSyn in mouse brain slices, primary neurons, mammalian cells and seeding models of aSyn pathology formation. We identified two antibodies that are insensitive to pS129 neighboring PTMs. Although most pS129 antibodies showed good performance in detecting aSyn aggregates in cells, neurons and mouse brain tissue containing abundant aSyn pathology, they also showed cross-reactivity towards other proteins and often detected non-specific low and high molecular weight bands in aSyn knock-out samples that could be easily mistaken for monomeric or high molecular weight aSyn species. Our observations suggest that not all pS129 antibodies capture the biochemical and morphological diversity of aSyn pathology, and all should be used with the appropriate protein standards and controls when investigating aSyn under physiological conditions. Finally, our work underscores the need for more pS129 antibodies that are not sensitive to neighboring PTMs and more thorough characterization and validation of existing and new antibodies.
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Ho PWL, Chang EES, Leung CT, Liu H, Malki Y, Pang SYY, Choi ZYK, Liang Y, Lai WS, Ruan Y, Leung KMY, Yung S, Mak JCW, Kung MHW, Ramsden DB, Ho SL. Long-term inhibition of mutant LRRK2 hyper-kinase activity reduced mouse brain α-synuclein oligomers without adverse effects. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2022; 8:115. [PMID: 36088364 PMCID: PMC9464237 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-022-00386-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by dopaminergic neurodegeneration in nigrostriatal and cortical brain regions associated with pathogenic α-synuclein (αSyn) aggregate/oligomer accumulation. LRRK2 hyperactivity is a disease-modifying therapeutic target in PD. However, LRRK2 inhibition may be associated with peripheral effects, albeit with unclear clinical consequences. Here, we significantly reduced αSyn oligomer accumulation in mouse striatum through long-term LRRK2 inhibition using GNE-7915 (specific brain-penetrant LRRK2 inhibitor) without causing adverse peripheral effects. GNE-7915 concentrations in wild-type (WT) mouse sera and brain samples reached a peak at 1 h, which gradually decreased over 24 h following a single subcutaneous (100 mg/kg) injection. The same dose in young WT and LRRK2R1441G mutant mice significantly inhibited LRRK2 kinase activity (Thr73-Rab10 and Ser106-Rab12 phosphorylation) in the lung, which dissipated by 72 h post-injection. 14-month-old mutant mice injected with GNE-7915 twice weekly for 18 weeks (equivalent to ~13 human years) exhibited reduced striatal αSyn oligomer and cortical pSer129-αSyn levels, correlating with inhibition of LRRK2 hyperactivity in brain and lung to WT levels. No GNE-7915-treated mice showed increased mortality or morbidity. Unlike reports of abnormalities in lung and kidney at acute high doses of LRRK2 inhibitors, our GNE-7915-treated mice did not exhibit swollen lamellar bodies in type II pneumocytes or abnormal vacuolation in the kidney. Functional and histopathological assessments of lung, kidney and liver, including whole-body plethysmography, urinary albumin-creatinine ratio (ACR), serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and serum interleukin-6 (inflammatory marker) did not reveal abnormalities after long-term GNE-7915 treatment. Long-term inhibition of mutant LRRK2 hyper-kinase activity to physiological levels presents an efficacious and safe disease-modifying therapy to ameliorate synucleinopathy in PD.
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Chen ML, Wu RM. Homozygous mutation of the LRRK2 ROC domain as a novel genetic model of parkinsonism. J Biomed Sci 2022; 29:60. [PMID: 35965315 PMCID: PMC9375908 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-022-00844-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most important neurodegenerative disorders in elderly people. Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are found in a large proportion of the patients with sporadic and familial PD. Mutations can occur at different locations in the LRRK2. Patients with LRRK2 ROC-COR mutations face an increased risk of typical motor symptoms of PD, along with cognitive decline. An animal model with a monogenic LRRK2 gene mutation is a suitable model for exploring the pathophysiology of PD and identifying potential drug therapies. However, the effect of homozygous (HOM) LRRK2 in PD pathophysiology is unclear. Methods We established human LRRK2 (hLRRK2) R1441G HOM transgenic (Tg) mice to explore the phenotype and pathological features that are associated with hLRRK2 R1441G Tg mouse models and discuss the potential clinical relevance. The open field test (OFT) was performed to examine motor and nonmotor behaviors. A CatWalk analysis system was used to study gait function. [18F]FDOPA PET was used to investigate functional changes in the nigrostriatal pathway in vivo. Transmission electron microscopy was used to examine the morphological changes in mitochondria and lysosomes in the substantia nigra. Results The R1441G HOM Tg mice demonstrated gait disturbance and exhibited less anxiety-related behavior and exploratory behavior than mice with hLRRK2 at 12 months old. Additionally, [18F]FDOPA PET showed a reduction in FDOPA uptake in the striatum of the HOM Tg mice. Notably, there was significant lysosome and autophagosome accumulation in the cytoplasm of dopaminergic neurons in R1441G hemizygous (HEM) and HOM mice. Moreover, it was observed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) that the mitochondria of R1441G Tg mice were smaller than those of hLRRK2 mice. Conclusion This animal provides a novel HOM hLRRK2 R1441G Tg mouse model that reproduces some phenotype of Parkinsonism in terms of both motor and behavioral dysfunction. There is an increased level of mitochondrial fission and no change in the fusion process in the group of HOM hLRRK2 R1441G Tg mouse. This mutant animal model of PD might be used to study the mechanisms of mitochondrial dysfunction and explore potential new drug targets. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12929-022-00844-9.
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Li L, Ho PWL, Liu H, Pang SYY, Chang EES, Choi ZYK, Malki Y, Kung MHW, Ramsden DB, Ho SL. Transcriptional Regulation of the Synaptic Vesicle Protein Synaptogyrin-3 (SYNGR3) Gene: The Effects of NURR1 on Its Expression. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23073646. [PMID: 35409005 PMCID: PMC8998927 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23073646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Synaptogyrin-3 (SYNGR3) is a synaptic vesicular membrane protein. Amongst four homologues (SYNGR1 to 4), SYNGR1 and 3 are especially abundant in the brain. SYNGR3 interacts with the dopamine transporter (DAT) to facilitate dopamine (DA) uptake and synaptic DA turnover in dopaminergic transmission. Perturbed SYNGR3 expression is observed in Parkinson’s disease (PD). The regulatory elements which affect SYNGR3 expression are unknown. Nuclear-receptor-related-1 protein (NURR1) can regulate dopaminergic neuronal differentiation and maintenance via binding to NGFI-B response elements (NBRE). We explored whether NURR1 can regulate SYNGR3 expression using an in silico analysis of the 5′-flanking region of the human SYNGR3 gene, reporter gene activity and an electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) of potential cis-acting sites. In silico analysis of two genomic DNA segments (1870 bp 5′-flanking region and 1870 + 159 bp of first exon) revealed one X Core Promoter Element 1 (XCPE1), two SP1, and three potential non-canonical NBRE response elements (ncNBRE) but no CAAT or TATA box. The longer segment exhibited gene promoter activity in luciferase reporter assays. Site-directed mutagenesis of XCPE1 decreased promoter activity in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y (↓43.2%) and human embryonic kidney HEK293 cells (↓39.7%). EMSA demonstrated NURR1 binding to these three ncNBRE. Site-directed mutagenesis of these ncNBRE reduced promoter activity by 11–17% in SH-SY5Y (neuronal) but not in HEK293 (non-neuronal) cells. C-DIM12 (Nurr1 activator) increased SYNGR3 protein expression in SH-SY5Y cells and its promoter activity using a real-time luciferase assay. As perturbed vesicular function is a feature of major neurodegenerative diseases, inducing SYNGR3 expression by NURR1 activators may be a potential therapeutic target to attenuate synaptic dysfunction in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingfei Li
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; (L.L.); (P.W.-L.H.); (H.L.); (S.Y.-Y.P.); (E.E.-S.C.); (Z.Y.-K.C.); (Y.M.); (M.H.-W.K.)
| | - Philip Wing-Lok Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; (L.L.); (P.W.-L.H.); (H.L.); (S.Y.-Y.P.); (E.E.-S.C.); (Z.Y.-K.C.); (Y.M.); (M.H.-W.K.)
| | - Huifang Liu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; (L.L.); (P.W.-L.H.); (H.L.); (S.Y.-Y.P.); (E.E.-S.C.); (Z.Y.-K.C.); (Y.M.); (M.H.-W.K.)
| | - Shirley Yin-Yu Pang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; (L.L.); (P.W.-L.H.); (H.L.); (S.Y.-Y.P.); (E.E.-S.C.); (Z.Y.-K.C.); (Y.M.); (M.H.-W.K.)
| | - Eunice Eun-Seo Chang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; (L.L.); (P.W.-L.H.); (H.L.); (S.Y.-Y.P.); (E.E.-S.C.); (Z.Y.-K.C.); (Y.M.); (M.H.-W.K.)
| | - Zoe Yuen-Kiu Choi
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; (L.L.); (P.W.-L.H.); (H.L.); (S.Y.-Y.P.); (E.E.-S.C.); (Z.Y.-K.C.); (Y.M.); (M.H.-W.K.)
| | - Yasine Malki
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; (L.L.); (P.W.-L.H.); (H.L.); (S.Y.-Y.P.); (E.E.-S.C.); (Z.Y.-K.C.); (Y.M.); (M.H.-W.K.)
| | - Michelle Hiu-Wai Kung
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; (L.L.); (P.W.-L.H.); (H.L.); (S.Y.-Y.P.); (E.E.-S.C.); (Z.Y.-K.C.); (Y.M.); (M.H.-W.K.)
| | - David Boyer Ramsden
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- Correspondence: (D.B.R.); (S.-L.H.)
| | - Shu-Leong Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; (L.L.); (P.W.-L.H.); (H.L.); (S.Y.-Y.P.); (E.E.-S.C.); (Z.Y.-K.C.); (Y.M.); (M.H.-W.K.)
- Correspondence: (D.B.R.); (S.-L.H.)
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Chang EES, Ho PWL, Liu HF, Pang SYY, Leung CT, Malki Y, Choi ZYK, Ramsden DB, Ho SL. LRRK2 mutant knock-in mouse models: therapeutic relevance in Parkinson's disease. Transl Neurodegener 2022; 11:10. [PMID: 35152914 PMCID: PMC8842874 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-022-00285-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2) are one of the most frequent genetic causes of both familial and sporadic Parkinson’s disease (PD). Mounting evidence has demonstrated pathological similarities between LRRK2-associated PD (LRRK2-PD) and sporadic PD, suggesting that LRRK2 is a potential disease modulator and a therapeutic target in PD. LRRK2 mutant knock-in (KI) mouse models display subtle alterations in pathological aspects that mirror early-stage PD, including increased susceptibility of nigrostriatal neurotransmission, development of motor and non-motor symptoms, mitochondrial and autophagy-lysosomal defects and synucleinopathies. This review provides a rationale for the use of LRRK2 KI mice to investigate the LRRK2-mediated pathogenesis of PD and implications from current findings from different LRRK2 KI mouse models, and ultimately discusses the therapeutic potentials against LRRK2-associated pathologies in PD.
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Pang SYY, Lo RCN, Ho PWL, Liu HF, Chang EES, Leung CT, Malki Y, Choi ZYK, Wong WY, Kung MHW, Ramsden DB, Ho SL. LRRK2, GBA and their interaction in the regulation of autophagy: implications on therapeutics in Parkinson's disease. Transl Neurodegener 2022; 11:5. [PMID: 35101134 PMCID: PMC8805403 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-022-00281-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) and glucocerebrosidase (GBA) represent two most common genetic causes of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Both genes are important in the autophagic-lysosomal pathway (ALP), defects of which are associated with α-synuclein (α-syn) accumulation. LRRK2 regulates macroautophagy via activation of the mitogen activated protein kinase/extracellular signal regulated protein kinase (MAPK/ERK) kinase (MEK) and the calcium-dependent adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathways. Phosphorylation of Rab GTPases by LRRK2 regulates lysosomal homeostasis and endosomal trafficking. Mutant LRRK2 impairs chaperone-mediated autophagy, resulting in α-syn binding and oligomerization on lysosomal membranes. Mutations in GBA reduce glucocerebrosidase (GCase) activity, leading to glucosylceramide accumulation, α-syn aggregation and broad autophagic abnormalities. LRRK2 and GBA influence each other: GCase activity is reduced in LRRK2 mutant cells, and LRRK2 kinase inhibition can alter GCase activity in GBA mutant cells. Clinically, LRRK2 G2019S mutation seems to modify the effects of GBA mutation, resulting in milder symptoms than those resulting from GBA mutation alone. However, dual mutation carriers have an increased risk of PD and earlier age of onset compared with single mutation carriers, suggesting an additive deleterious effect on the initiation of PD pathogenic processes. Crosstalk between LRRK2 and GBA in PD exists, but its exact mechanism is unclear. Drugs that inhibit LRRK2 kinase or activate GCase are showing efficacy in pre-clinical models. Since LRRK2 kinase and GCase activities are also altered in idiopathic PD (iPD), it remains to be seen if these drugs will be useful in disease modification of iPD.
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Yakhine-Diop SMS, Rodríguez-Arribas M, Canales-Cortés S, Martínez-Chacón G, Uribe-Carretero E, Blanco-Benítez M, Duque-González G, Paredes-Barquero M, Alegre-Cortés E, Climent V, Aiastui A, López de Munain A, Bravo-San Pedro JM, Niso-Santano M, Fuentes JM, González-Polo RA. The parkinsonian LRRK2 R1441G mutation shows macroautophagy-mitophagy dysregulation concomitant with endoplasmic reticulum stress. Cell Biol Toxicol 2021; 38:889-911. [PMID: 34060004 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-021-09617-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy is a mechanism responsible for the degradation of cellular components to maintain their homeostasis. However, autophagy is commonly altered and compromised in several diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders. Parkinson's disease (PD) can be considered a multifactorial disease because environmental factors, genetic factors, and aging are involved. Several genes are involved in PD pathology, among which the LRRK2 gene and its mutations, inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, are responsible for most genetic PD cases. The R1441G LRRK2 mutation is, after G2019S, the most important in PD pathogenesis. Our results demonstrate a relationship between the R1441G LRRK2 mutation and a mechanistic dysregulation of autophagy that compromises cell viability. This altered autophagy mechanism is associated with organellar stress including mitochondrial (which induces mitophagy) and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, consistent with the fact that patients with this mutation are more vulnerable to toxins related to PD, such as MPP+.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sokhna M S Yakhine-Diop
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular Y Genética, Facultad de Enfermería Y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Extremadura (INUBE), Cáceres, Spain
| | - Mario Rodríguez-Arribas
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular Y Genética, Facultad de Enfermería Y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Extremadura (INUBE), Cáceres, Spain
| | - Saray Canales-Cortés
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular Y Genética, Facultad de Enfermería Y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain
| | - Guadalupe Martínez-Chacón
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular Y Genética, Facultad de Enfermería Y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Extremadura (INUBE), Cáceres, Spain
| | - Elisabet Uribe-Carretero
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular Y Genética, Facultad de Enfermería Y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Extremadura (INUBE), Cáceres, Spain
| | - Mercedes Blanco-Benítez
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular Y Genética, Facultad de Enfermería Y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain
| | - Gema Duque-González
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular Y Genética, Facultad de Enfermería Y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain
| | - Marta Paredes-Barquero
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular Y Genética, Facultad de Enfermería Y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain
| | - Eva Alegre-Cortés
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular Y Genética, Facultad de Enfermería Y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain
| | - Vicente Climent
- Departamento de Anatomía Y Embriología Humana, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Ana Aiastui
- Cell Culture Platform, Donostia University Hospital, San Sebastián, Spain.,Neuroscience Area of Biodonostia Health Research Institute, Donostia University Hospital, San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Adolfo López de Munain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Department of Neurology, Donostia University Hospital, San Sebastian, Spain.,Ilundain Foundation, San Sebastian, Spain.,Department of Neurosciences, University of the Basque Country UPV-EHU, San Sebastián, Spain
| | - José M Bravo-San Pedro
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mireia Niso-Santano
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular Y Genética, Facultad de Enfermería Y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain. .,Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Extremadura (INUBE), Cáceres, Spain.
| | - José M Fuentes
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular Y Genética, Facultad de Enfermería Y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain. .,Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Extremadura (INUBE), Cáceres, Spain.
| | - Rosa A González-Polo
- Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular Y Genética, Facultad de Enfermería Y Terapia Ocupacional, Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain. .,Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria de Extremadura (INUBE), Cáceres, Spain.
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Bryant N, Malpeli N, Ziaee J, Blauwendraat C, Liu Z, West AB. Identification of LRRK2 missense variants in the accelerating medicines partnership Parkinson's disease cohort. Hum Mol Genet 2021; 30:454-466. [PMID: 33640967 PMCID: PMC8101351 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddab058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic missense variants in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene have been identified through linkage analysis in familial Parkinson disease (PD). Subsequently, other missense variants with lower effect sizes on PD risk have emerged, as well as non-coding polymorphisms (e.g. rs76904798) enriched in PD cases in genome-wide association studies. Here we leverage recent whole-genome sequences from the Accelerating Medicines Partnership-Parkinson's Disease (AMP-PD) and the Genome Aggregation (gnomAD) databases to characterize novel missense variants in LRRK2 and explore their relationships with known pathogenic and PD-linked missense variants. Using a computational prediction tool that successfully classifies known pathogenic LRRK2 missense variants, we describe an online web-based resource that catalogs characteristics of over 1200 LRRK2 missense variants of unknown significance. Novel high-pathogenicity scoring variants, some identified exclusively in PD cases, tightly cluster within the ROC-COR-Kinase domains. Structure-function predictions support that some of these variants exert gain-of-function effects with respect to LRRK2 kinase activity. In AMP-PD participants, all p.R1441G carriers (N = 89) are also carriers of the more common PD-linked variant p.M1646T. In addition, nearly all carriers of the PD-linked p.N2081D missense variant are also carriers of the LRRK2 PD-risk variant rs76904798. These results provide a compendium of LRRK2 missense variants and how they associate with one another. While the pathogenic p.G2019S variant is by far the most frequent high-pathogenicity scoring variant, our results suggest that ultra-rare missense variants may have an important cumulative impact in increasing the number of individuals with LRRK2-linked PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Bryant
- Duke Center for Neurodegeneration and Neurotherapeutics Research, Departments of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, and Neurology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710 USA
| | - Nicole Malpeli
- Duke Center for Neurodegeneration and Neurotherapeutics Research, Departments of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, and Neurology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710 USA
| | - Julia Ziaee
- Duke Center for Neurodegeneration and Neurotherapeutics Research, Departments of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, and Neurology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710 USA
| | - Cornelis Blauwendraat
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Zhiyong Liu
- Duke Center for Neurodegeneration and Neurotherapeutics Research, Departments of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, and Neurology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710 USA
| | | | - Andrew B West
- Duke Center for Neurodegeneration and Neurotherapeutics Research, Departments of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, and Neurology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710 USA
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Pathogenic LRRK2 requires secondary factors to induce cellular toxicity. Biosci Rep 2021; 40:226517. [PMID: 32975566 PMCID: PMC7560525 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20202225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene belong to the most common genetic causes of inherited Parkinson’s disease (PD) and variations in its locus increase the risk to develop sporadic PD. Extensive research efforts aimed at understanding how changes in the LRRK2 function result in molecular alterations that ultimately lead to PD. Cellular LRRK2-based models revealed several potential pathophysiological mechanisms including apoptotic cell death, LRRK2 protein accumulation and deficits in neurite outgrowth. However, highly variable outcomes between different cellular models have been reported. Here, we have investigated the effect of different experimental conditions, such as the use of different tags and gene transfer methods, in various cellular LRRK2 models. Readouts included cell death, sensitivity to oxidative stress, LRRK2 relocalization, α-synuclein aggregation and neurite outgrowth in cell culture, as well as neurite maintenance in vivo. We show that overexpression levels and/or the tag fused to LRRK2 affect the relocalization of LRRK2 to filamentous and skein-like structures. We found that overexpression of LRRK2 per se is not sufficient to induce cellular toxicity or to affect α-synuclein-induced toxicity and aggregate formation. Finally, neurite outgrowth/retraction experiments in cell lines and in vivo revealed that secondary, yet unknown, factors are required for the pathogenic LRRK2 effects on neurite length. Our findings stress the importance of technical and biological factors in LRRK2-induced cellular phenotypes and hence imply that conclusions based on these types of LRRK2-based assays should be interpreted with caution.
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15
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Liu H, Ho PWL, Leung CT, Pang SYY, Chang EES, Choi ZYK, Kung MHW, Ramsden DB, Ho SL. Aberrant mitochondrial morphology and function associated with impaired mitophagy and DNM1L-MAPK/ERK signaling are found in aged mutant Parkinsonian LRRK2 R1441G mice. Autophagy 2020; 17:3196-3220. [PMID: 33300446 PMCID: PMC8526027 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2020.1850008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction causes energy deficiency and nigrostriatal neurodegeneration which is integral to the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease (PD). Clearance of defective mitochondria involves fission and ubiquitin-dependent degradation via mitophagy to maintain energy homeostasis. We hypothesize that LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2) mutation disrupts mitochondrial turnover causing accumulation of defective mitochondria in aging brain. We found more ubiquitinated mitochondria with aberrant morphology associated with impaired function in aged (but not young) LRRK2R1441G knockin mutant mouse striatum compared to wild-type (WT) controls. LRRK2R1441G mutant mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) exhibited reduced MAP1LC3/LC3 activation indicating impaired macroautophagy/autophagy. Mutant MEFs under FCCP-induced (mitochondrial uncoupler) stress showed increased LC3-aggregates demonstrating impaired mitophagy. Using a novel flow cytometry assay to quantify mitophagic rates in MEFs expressing photoactivatable mito-PAmCherry, we found significantly slower mitochondria clearance in mutant cells. Specific LRRK2 kinase inhibition using GNE-7915 did not alleviate impaired mitochondrial clearance suggesting a lack of direct relationship to increased kinase activity alone. DNM1L/Drp1 knockdown in MEFs slowed mitochondrial clearance indicating that DNM1L is a prerequisite for mitophagy. DNM1L knockdown in slowing mitochondrial clearance was less pronounced in mutant MEFs, indicating preexisting impaired DNM1L activation. DNM1L knockdown disrupted mitochondrial network which was more evident in mutant MEFs. DNM1L-Ser616 and MAPK/ERK phosphorylation which mediate mitochondrial fission and downstream mitophagic processes was apparent in WT using FCCP-induced stress but not mutant MEFs, despite similar total MAPK/ERK and DNM1L levels. In conclusion, aberrant mitochondria morphology and dysfunction associated with impaired mitophagy and DNM1L-MAPK/ERK signaling are found in mutant LRRK2 MEFs and mouse brain. Abbreviations: ATP: adenosine triphosphate; BAX: BCL2-associated X protein; CDK1: cyclin-dependent kinase 1; CDK5: cyclin-dependent kinase 5; CQ: chloroquine; CSF: cerebrospinal fluid; DNM1L/DRP1: dynamin 1-like; ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; FACS: fluorescence-activated cell sorting; FCCP: carbonyl cyanide-4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylhydrazone; GAPDH: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; LAMP2A: lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2A; LRRK2: leucine-rich repeat kinase 2; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3; MAPK1/ERK2: mitogen-activated protein kinase 1; MEF: mouse embryonic fibroblast; MFN1: mitofusin 1; MMP: mitochondrial membrane potential; PAmCherry: photoactivatable-mCherry; PD: Parkinson disease; PINK1: PTEN induced putative kinase 1; PRKN/PARKIN: parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase; RAB10: RAB10, member RAS oncogene family; RAF: v-raf-leukemia oncogene; SNCA: synuclein, alpha; TEM: transmission electron microscopy; VDAC: voltage-dependent anion channel; WT: wild type; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huifang Liu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Philip Wing-Lok Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chi-Ting Leung
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Shirley Yin-Yu Pang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Eunice Eun Seo Chang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Zoe Yuen-Kiu Choi
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Michelle Hiu-Wai Kung
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - David Boyer Ramsden
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Shu-Leong Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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16
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Erb ML, Moore DJ. LRRK2 and the Endolysosomal System in Parkinson's Disease. JOURNAL OF PARKINSONS DISEASE 2020; 10:1271-1291. [PMID: 33044192 PMCID: PMC7677880 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-202138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause autosomal dominant familial Parkinson’s disease (PD), with pathogenic mutations enhancing LRRK2 kinase activity. There is a growing body of evidence indicating that LRRK2 contributes to neuronal damage and pathology both in familial and sporadic PD, making it of particular interest for understanding the molecular pathways that underlie PD. Although LRRK2 has been extensively studied to date, our understanding of the seemingly diverse functions of LRRK2 throughout the cell remains incomplete. In this review, we discuss the functions of LRRK2 within the endolysosomal pathway. Endocytosis, vesicle trafficking pathways, and lysosomal degradation are commonly disrupted in many neurodegenerative diseases, including PD. Additionally, many PD-linked gene products function in these intersecting pathways, suggesting an important role for the endolysosomal system in maintaining protein homeostasis and neuronal health in PD. LRRK2 activity can regulate synaptic vesicle endocytosis, lysosomal function, Golgi network maintenance and sorting, vesicular trafficking and autophagy, with alterations in LRRK2 kinase activity serving to disrupt or regulate these pathways depending on the distinct cell type or model system. LRRK2 is critically regulated by at least two proteins in the endolysosomal pathway, Rab29 and VPS35, which may serve as master regulators of LRRK2 kinase activity. Investigating the function and regulation of LRRK2 in the endolysosomal pathway in diverse PD models, especially in vivo models, will provide critical insight into the cellular and molecular pathophysiological mechanisms driving PD and whether LRRK2 represents a viable drug target for disease-modification in familial and sporadic PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madalynn L Erb
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Darren J Moore
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
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17
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Kuhlmann N, Milnerwood AJ. A Critical LRRK at the Synapse? The Neurobiological Function and Pathophysiological Dysfunction of LRRK2. Front Mol Neurosci 2020; 13:153. [PMID: 32973447 PMCID: PMC7482583 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2020.00153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the discovery of LRRK2 mutations causal to Parkinson's disease (PD) in the early 2000s, the LRRK2 protein has been implicated in a plethora of cellular processes in which pathogenesis could occur, yet its physiological function remains elusive. The development of genetic models of LRRK2 PD has helped identify the etiological and pathophysiological underpinnings of the disease, and may identify early points of intervention. An important role for LRRK2 in synaptic function has emerged in recent years, which links LRRK2 to other genetic forms of PD, most notably those caused by mutations in the synaptic protein α-synuclein. This point of convergence may provide useful clues as to what drives dysfunction in the basal ganglia circuitry and eventual death of substantia nigra (SN) neurons. Here, we discuss the evolution and current state of the literature placing LRRK2 at the synapse, through the lens of knock-out, overexpression, and knock-in animal models. We hope that a deeper understanding of LRRK2 neurobiology, at the synapse and beyond, will aid the eventual development of neuroprotective interventions for PD, and the advancement of useful treatments in the interim.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naila Kuhlmann
- Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Neurology & Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Austen J Milnerwood
- Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Neurology & Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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18
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Seegobin SP, Heaton GR, Liang D, Choi I, Blanca Ramirez M, Tang B, Yue Z. Progress in LRRK2-Associated Parkinson's Disease Animal Models. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:674. [PMID: 32765209 PMCID: PMC7381130 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are the most frequent cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD). Several genetic manipulations of the LRRK2 gene have been developed in animal models such as rodents, Drosophila, Caenorhabditis elegans, and zebrafish. These models can help us further understand the biological function and derive potential pathological mechanisms for LRRK2. Here we discuss common phenotypic themes found in LRRK2-associated PD animal models, highlight several issues that should be addressed in future models, and discuss emerging areas to guide their future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven P. Seegobin
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - George R. Heaton
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Dongxiao Liang
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Hunan, China
| | - Insup Choi
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Marian Blanca Ramirez
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Beisha Tang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Hunan, China
| | - Zhenyu Yue
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
- Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
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19
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Albanese F, Novello S, Morari M. Autophagy and LRRK2 in the Aging Brain. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:1352. [PMID: 31920513 PMCID: PMC6928047 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a highly conserved process by which long-lived macromolecules, protein aggregates and dysfunctional/damaged organelles are delivered to lysosomes for degradation. Autophagy plays a crucial role in regulating protein quality control and cell homeostasis in response to energetic needs and environmental challenges. Indeed, activation of autophagy increases the life-span of living organisms, and impairment of autophagy is associated with several human disorders, among which neurodegenerative disorders of aging, such as Parkinson’s disease. These disorders are characterized by the accumulation of aggregates of aberrant or misfolded proteins that are toxic for neurons. Since aging is associated with impaired autophagy, autophagy inducers have been viewed as a strategy to counteract the age-related physiological decline in brain functions and emergence of neurodegenerative disorders. Parkinson’s disease is a hypokinetic, multisystemic disorder characterized by age-related, progressive degeneration of central and peripheral neuronal populations, associated with intraneuronal accumulation of proteinaceous aggregates mainly composed by the presynaptic protein α-synuclein. α-synuclein is a substrate of macroautophagy and chaperone-mediated autophagy (two major forms of autophagy), thus impairment of its clearance might favor the process of α-synuclein seeding and spreading that trigger and sustain the progression of this disorder. Genetic factors causing Parkinson’s disease have been identified, among which mutations in the LRRK2 gene, which encodes for a multidomain protein encompassing central GTPase and kinase domains, surrounded by protein-protein interaction domains. Six LRRK2 mutations have been pathogenically linked to Parkinson’s disease, the most frequent being the G2019S in the kinase domain. LRRK2-associated Parkinson’s disease is clinically and neuropathologically similar to idiopathic Parkinson’s disease, also showing age-dependency and incomplete penetrance. Several mechanisms have been proposed through which LRRK2 mutations can lead to Parkinson’s disease. The present article will focus on the evidence that LRRK2 and its mutants are associated with autophagy dysregulation. Studies in cell lines and neurons in vitro and in LRRK2 knock-out, knock-in, kinase-dead and transgenic animals in vivo will be reviewed. The role of aging in LRRK2-induced synucleinopathy will be discussed. Possible mechanisms underlying the LRRK2-mediated control over autophagy will be analyzed, and the contribution of autophagy dysregulation to the neurotoxic actions of LRRK2 will be examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Albanese
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Salvatore Novello
- Laboratory of Molecular and Chemical Biology of Neurodegeneration, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michele Morari
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
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20
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Pang SYY, Ho PWL, Liu HF, Leung CT, Li L, Chang EES, Ramsden DB, Ho SL. The interplay of aging, genetics and environmental factors in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Transl Neurodegener 2019; 8:23. [PMID: 31428316 PMCID: PMC6696688 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-019-0165-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by dopaminergic neuronal loss in the substantia nigra pars compacta and intracellular inclusions called Lewy bodies (LB). During the course of disease, misfolded α-synuclein, the major constituent of LB, spreads to different regions of the brain in a prion-like fashion, giving rise to successive non-motor and motor symptoms. Etiology is likely multifactorial, and involves interplay among aging, genetic susceptibility and environmental factors. MAIN BODY The prevalence of PD rises exponentially with age, and aging is associated with impairment of cellular pathways which increases susceptibility of dopaminergic neurons to cell death. However, the majority of those over the age of 80 do not have PD, thus other factors in addition to aging are needed to cause disease. Discovery of neurotoxins which can result in parkinsonism led to efforts in identifying environmental factors which may influence PD risk. Nevertheless, the causality of most environmental factors is not conclusively established, and alternative explanations such as reverse causality and recall bias cannot be excluded. The lack of geographic clusters and conjugal cases also go against environmental toxins as a major cause of PD. Rare mutations as well as common variants in genes such as SNCA, LRRK2 and GBA are associated with risk of PD, but Mendelian causes collectively only account for 5% of PD and common polymorphisms are associated with small increase in PD risk. Heritability of PD has been estimated to be around 30%. Thus, aging, genetics and environmental factors each alone is rarely sufficient to cause PD for most patients. CONCLUSION PD is a multifactorial disorder involving interplay of aging, genetics and environmental factors. This has implications on the development of appropriate animal models of PD which take all these factors into account. Common converging pathways likely include mitochondrial dysfunction, impaired autophagy, oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, which are associated with the accumulation and spread of misfolded α-synuclein and neurodegeneration. Understanding the mechanisms involved in the initiation and progression of PD may lead to potential therapeutic targets to prevent PD or modify its course.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shirley Yin-Yu Pang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Philip Wing-Lok Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hui-Fang Liu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chi-Ting Leung
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lingfei Li
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Eunice Eun Seo Chang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
| | - David Boyer Ramsden
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Shu-Leong Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
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21
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Ho PWL, Leung CT, Liu H, Pang SYY, Lam CSC, Xian J, Li L, Kung MHW, Ramsden DB, Ho SL. Age-dependent accumulation of oligomeric SNCA/α-synuclein from impaired degradation in mutant LRRK2 knockin mouse model of Parkinson disease: role for therapeutic activation of chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA). Autophagy 2019; 16:347-370. [PMID: 30983487 PMCID: PMC6984454 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2019.1603545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson disease (PD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder associated with misfolded SNCA/α-synuclein accumulation in brain. Impaired catabolism of SNCA potentiates formation of its toxic oligomers. LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase-2) mutations predispose to familial and sporadic PD. Mutant LRRK2 perturbs chaperone-mediated-autophagy (CMA) to degrade SNCA. We showed greater age-dependent accumulation of oligomeric SNCA in striatum and cortex of aged LRRK2R1441G knockin (KI) mice, compared to age-matched wildtype (WT) by 53% and 31%, respectively. Lysosomal clustering and accumulation of CMA-specific LAMP2A and HSPA8/HSC70 proteins were observed in aged mutant striatum along with increased GAPDH (CMA substrate) by immunohistochemistry of dorsal striatum and flow cytometry of ventral midbrain cells. Using our new reporter protein clearance assay, mutant mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) expressing either SNCA or CMA recognition ‘KFERQ’-like motif conjugated with photoactivated-PAmCherry showed slower cellular clearance compared to WT by 28% and 34%, respectively. However, such difference was not observed after the ‘KFERQ’-motif was mutated. LRRK2 mutant MEFs exhibited lower lysosomal degradation than WT indicating lysosomal dysfunction. LAMP2A-knockdown reduced total lysosomal activity and clearance of ‘KFERQ’-substrate in WT but not in mutant MEFs, indicating impaired CMA in the latter. A CMA-specific activator, AR7, induced neuronal LAMP2A transcription and lysosomal activity in MEFs. AR7 also attenuated the progressive accumulation of both intracellular and extracellular SNCA oligomers in prolonged cultures of mutant cortical neurons (DIV21), indicating that oligomer accumulation can be suppressed by CMA activation. Activation of autophagic pathways to reduce aged-related accumulation of pathogenic SNCA oligomers is a viable disease-modifying therapeutic strategy for PD. Abbreviations: 3-MA: 3-methyladenine; AR7: 7-chloro-3-(4-methylphenyl)-2H-1,4-benzoxazine; CMA: chaperone-mediated autophagy; CQ: chloroquine; CSF: cerebrospinal fluid; DDM: n-dodecyl β-D-maltoside; DIV: days in vitro; ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; FACS: fluorescence-activated cell sorting; GAPDH: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; GWAS: genome-wide association studies; HSPA8/HSC70: heat shock protein 8; KFERQ: CMA recognition pentapeptide; KI: knockin; LAMP1: lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1; LAMP2A: lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2A; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; LRRK2: leucine-rich repeat kinase 2; MEF: mouse embryonic fibroblast; NDUFS4: NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase core subunit S4; NE: novel epitope; PD: Parkinson disease; RARA/RARα: retinoic acid receptor, alpha; SNCA: synuclein, alpha; TUBB3/TUJ1: tubulin, beta 3 class III; WT: wild-type
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Wing-Lok Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital , Hong Kong S.A.R., China
| | - Chi-Ting Leung
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital , Hong Kong S.A.R., China
| | - Huifang Liu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital , Hong Kong S.A.R., China
| | - Shirley Yin-Yu Pang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital , Hong Kong S.A.R., China
| | - Colin Siu-Chi Lam
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital , Hong Kong S.A.R., China
| | - Jiawen Xian
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital , Hong Kong S.A.R., China
| | - Lingfei Li
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital , Hong Kong S.A.R., China
| | - Michelle Hiu-Wai Kung
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital , Hong Kong S.A.R., China
| | - David Boyer Ramsden
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Shu-Leong Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Queen Mary Hospital , Hong Kong S.A.R., China
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22
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Kawahara H, Hanayama R. The Role of Exosomes/Extracellular Vesicles in Neural Signal Transduction. Biol Pharm Bull 2018; 41:1119-1125. [PMID: 30068858 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b18-00167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes, in a broad sense extracellular vesicles (EVs), are secreted from several cells and also exist in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF); they contribute to signal transduction not only between neural cells but also among hematopoietic cells. In addition to the peripheral nervous system, the association of regeneration and EVs has also been reported in the central nervous system, for example, following a spinal cord injury. Furthermore, it has become clear that major causative factors of neurodegenerative diseases are transmitted by EVs; thus, EVs are involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. In particular, we would like to outline the relationship between neurophysiology and neurological disorders centered on EV-mediated communication between neural and glial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hironori Kawahara
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University.,Nano Life Science Institute (WPI-NanoLSI), Kanazawa University
| | - Rikinari Hanayama
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University.,Nano Life Science Institute (WPI-NanoLSI), Kanazawa University
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23
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Nigrostriatal pathology with reduced astrocytes in LRRK2 S910/S935 phosphorylation deficient knockin mice. Neurobiol Dis 2018; 120:76-87. [PMID: 30194047 PMCID: PMC6197399 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Revised: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is genetically implicated in both familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD). Moreover, LRRK2 has emerged as a compelling therapeutic target for the treatment of PD. Consequently, there is much interest in understanding LRRK2 and its role in PD pathogenesis. LRRK2 is constitutively phosphorylated on two serines, S910 and S935, that are required for interaction of LRRK2 with members of the 14-3-3 family of scaffolding proteins. Pathogenic LRRK2 missense mutations impair the phosphorylation of LRRK2 at these sites, but whether this contributes to PD pathology is unclear. To better understand how loss of LRRK2 phosphorylation relates to PD pathology, we have studied double knockin mice in which Lrrk2's serine 910 and 935 have both been mutated to alanine and can therefore no longer be phosphorylated. Nigrostriatal PD pathology was assessed in adult mice, aged mice, and mice inoculated with α-synuclein fibrils. Under all paradigms there was evidence of early PD pathology in the striatum of the knockin mice, namely alterations in dopamine regulating proteins and accumulation of α-synuclein. Striatal pathology was accompanied by a significant decrease in the number of astrocytes in the knockin mice. Despite striatal pathology, there was no degeneration of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra and no evidence of a PD motor phenotype in the knockin mice. Our results suggest that modulation of LRRK2 serine 910 and 935 phosphorylation sites may have implications for dopamine turnover and astrocyte function, but loss of phosphorylation at these residues is not sufficient to induce PD neurodegeneration.
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Tozzi A, Tantucci M, Marchi S, Mazzocchetti P, Morari M, Pinton P, Mancini A, Calabresi P. Dopamine D2 receptor-mediated neuroprotection in a G2019S Lrrk2 genetic model of Parkinson's disease. Cell Death Dis 2018; 9:204. [PMID: 29434188 PMCID: PMC5833812 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-017-0221-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Revised: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder in which genetic and environmental factors synergistically lead to loss of midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons. Mutation of leucine-rich repeated kinase2 (Lrrk2) genes is responsible for the majority of inherited familial cases of PD and can also be found in sporadic cases. The pathophysiological role of this kinase has to be fully understood yet. Hyperactivation of Lrrk2 kinase domain might represent a predisposing factor for both enhanced striatal glutamatergic release and mitochondrial vulnerability to environmental factors that are observed in PD. To investigate possible alterations of striatal susceptibility to mitochondrial dysfunction, we performed electrophysiological recordings from the nucleus striatum of a G2019S Lrrk2 mouse model of PD, as well as molecular and morphological analyses of G2019S Lrrk2-expressing SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. In G2019S mice, we found reduced striatal DA levels, according to the hypothesis of alteration of dopaminergic transmission, and increased loss of field potential induced by the mitochondrial complex I inhibitor rotenone. This detrimental effect is reversed by the D2 DA receptor agonist quinpirole via the inhibition of the cAMP/PKA intracellular pathway. Analysis of mitochondrial functions in G2019S Lrrk2-expressing SH-SY5Y cells revealed strong rotenone-induced oxidative stress characterized by reduced Ca2+ buffering capability and ATP synthesis, production of reactive oxygen species, and increased mitochondrial fragmentation. Importantly, quinpirole was able to prevent all these changes. We suggest that the G2019S-Lrrk2 mutation is a predisposing factor for enhanced striatal susceptibility to mitochondrial dysfunction induced by exposure to mitochondrial environmental toxins and that the D2 receptor stimulation is neuroprotective on mitochondrial function, via the inhibition of cAMP/PKA intracellular pathway. We suggest new possible neuroprotective strategies for patients carrying this genetic alteration based on drugs specifically targeting Lrrk2 kinase domain and mitochondrial functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Tozzi
- Santa Lucia Foundation IRCCS, Rome, Italy
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Michela Tantucci
- Neurological clinic, Department of Medicine, University of Perugia, Santa Maria della Misericordia Hospital, Perugia, Italy
| | - Saverio Marchi
- Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Petra Mazzocchetti
- Neurological clinic, Department of Medicine, University of Perugia, Santa Maria della Misericordia Hospital, Perugia, Italy
| | - Michele Morari
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Paolo Pinton
- Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Andrea Mancini
- Neurological clinic, Department of Medicine, University of Perugia, Santa Maria della Misericordia Hospital, Perugia, Italy
| | - Paolo Calabresi
- Santa Lucia Foundation IRCCS, Rome, Italy.
- Neurological clinic, Department of Medicine, University of Perugia, Santa Maria della Misericordia Hospital, Perugia, Italy.
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25
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Development of phospho-specific Rab protein antibodies to monitor in vivo activity of the LRRK2 Parkinson's disease kinase. Biochem J 2018; 475:1-22. [PMID: 29127256 PMCID: PMC5748839 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20170802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Mutations that activate the LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat protein kinase 2) protein kinase predispose to Parkinson's disease, suggesting that LRRK2 inhibitors might have therapeutic benefit. Recent work has revealed that LRRK2 phosphorylates a subgroup of 14 Rab proteins, including Rab10, at a specific residue located at the centre of its effector-binding switch-II motif. In the present study, we analyse the selectivity and sensitivity of polyclonal and monoclonal phospho-specific antibodies raised against nine different LRRK2-phosphorylated Rab proteins (Rab3A/3B/3C/3D, Rab5A/5B/5C, Rab8A/8B, Rab10, Rab12, Rab29[T71], Rab29[S72], Rab35 and Rab43). We identify rabbit monoclonal phospho-specific antibodies (MJFF-pRAB10) that are exquisitely selective for LRRK2-phosphorylated Rab10, detecting endogenous phosphorylated Rab10 in all analysed cell lines and tissues, including human brain cingulate cortex. We demonstrate that the MJFF-pRAB10 antibodies can be deployed to assess enhanced Rab10 phosphorylation resulting from pathogenic (R1441C/G or G2019S) LRRK2 knock-in mutations as well as the impact of LRRK2 inhibitor treatment. We also identify rabbit monoclonal antibodies displaying broad specificity (MJFF-pRAB8) that can be utilised to assess LRRK2-controlled phosphorylation of a range of endogenous Rab proteins, including Rab8A, Rab10 and Rab35. The antibodies described in the present study will help with the assessment of LRRK2 activity and examination of which Rab proteins are phosphorylated in vivo. These antibodies could also be used to assess the impact of LRRK2 inhibitors in future clinical trials.
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26
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LRRK2 mouse models: dissecting the behavior, striatal neurochemistry and neurophysiology of PD pathogenesis. Biochem Soc Trans 2017; 45:113-122. [PMID: 28202664 DOI: 10.1042/bst20160238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common genetic cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD), resembling the sporadic disorder. Intensive effort has been directed toward LRRK2 mouse modeling and investigation, aimed at reproducing the human disease to inform mechanistic studies of pathogenesis and design of neuroprotective therapies. The physiological function of LRRK2 is still under exploration, but a clear role in striatal neurophysiology and animal behavior has emerged. Alterations in LRRK2 impair dopamine (DA) transmission, regulation and signaling, in addition to corticostriatal synaptic plasticity. Consistently, several subtle abnormalities in motor and nonmotor abilities have been demonstrated in LRRK2 genetic mouse models, generally paralleling preclinical symptoms of early DA dysfunction. However, the variability in model design and phenotypes observed requires a critical approach in interpreting the results, adapting the model used to the specific research question. Etiologically appropriate knockin mice might represent the ultimate animal model in which to study early disease mechanisms and therapies as well as to investigate drug effectiveness and off-target consequences.
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27
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Giesert F, Glasl L, Zimprich A, Ernst L, Piccoli G, Stautner C, Zerle J, Hölter SM, Vogt Weisenhorn DM, Wurst W. The pathogenic LRRK2 R1441C mutation induces specific deficits modeling the prodromal phase of Parkinson's disease in the mouse. Neurobiol Dis 2017; 105:179-193. [PMID: 28576705 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2017.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2017] [Revised: 05/13/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to further explore the in vivo function of the Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2)-gene, which is mutated in certain familial forms of Parkinson's disease (PD). We generated a mouse model harboring the disease-associated point mutation R1441C in the GTPase domain of the endogenous murine LRRK2 gene (LRRK2 R1441C line) and performed a comprehensive analysis of these animals throughout lifespan in comparison with an existing knockdown line of LRRK2 (LRRK2 knockdown line). Animals of both lines do not exhibit severe motor dysfunction or pathological signs of neurodegeneration neither at young nor old age. However, at old age the homozygous LRRK2 R1441C animals exhibit clear phenotypes related to the prodromal phase of PD such as impairments in fine motor tasks, gait, and olfaction. These phenotypes are only marginally observable in the LRRK2 knockdown animals, possibly due to activation of compensatory mechanisms as suggested by in vitro studies of synaptic transmission. Thus, at the organismal level the LRRK2 R1441C mutation does not emerge as a loss of function of the protein, but induces mutation specific deficits. Furthermore, judged by the phenotypes presented, the LRRK2-R1441C knock-in line is a valid preclinical model for the prodromal phase of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Giesert
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - L Glasl
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - A Zimprich
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - L Ernst
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - G Piccoli
- Center for Integrative Biology (CIBIO), University of Trento and Dulbecco Telethon Institute Trento, Italy
| | - C Stautner
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - J Zerle
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - S M Hölter
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - D M Vogt Weisenhorn
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - W Wurst
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Developmental Genetics, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Technische Universität München-Weihenstephan, Lehrstuhl für Entwicklungsgenetik, c/o Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Feodor-Lynen-Str. 17, 81377 Munich, Germany; Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen e. V. (DZNE), Standort München, Feodor-Lynen-Str. 17, 81377 München, Germany.
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28
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Liu HF, Ho PWL, Leung GCT, Lam CSC, Pang SYY, Li L, Kung MHW, Ramsden DB, Ho SL. Combined LRRK2 mutation, aging and chronic low dose oral rotenone as a model of Parkinson's disease. Sci Rep 2017; 7:40887. [PMID: 28098219 PMCID: PMC5241661 DOI: 10.1038/srep40887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging, genetics and environmental toxicity are important etiological factors in Parkinson’s disease (PD). However, its pathogenesis remains unclear. A major obstacle is the lack of an appropriate experimental model which incorporates genetic susceptibility, aging and prolonged environmental toxicity. Here, we explored the interplay amongst these factors using mutant LRRK2R1441G (leucine-rich-repeat-kinase-2) knockin mice. We found that mutant primary cortical and mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons were more susceptible to rotenone-induced ATP deficiency and cell death. Compared with wild-type controls, striatal synaptosomes isolated from young mutant mice exhibited significantly lower dopamine uptake after rotenone toxicity, due to reduced striatal synaptosomal mitochondria and synaptic vesicular proton pump protein (V-ATPase H) levels. Mutant mice developed greater locomotor deficits in open-field tests than wild-type mice following low oral rotenone doses given twice weekly over 50 weeks (half their lifespan). The increased locomotor deficit was associated with specific reduction in striatal mitochondrial Complex-I (NDUFS4) in rotenone-treated mutant but not in similarly treated wild-type mice. Our unique experimental model which incorporates genetic effect, natural aging and prolonged oral environmental toxicity administered to mutant knockin LRRK2 mice over half their life span, with observable and measurable phenotype, is invaluable in further studies of the pathogenic process and therapeutics of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Fang Liu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Philip Wing-Lok Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | | | - Colin Siu-Chi Lam
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Shirley Yin-Yu Pang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Lingfei Li
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | | | - David Boyer Ramsden
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Shu-Leong Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
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29
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Islam MS, Nolte H, Jacob W, Ziegler AB, Pütz S, Grosjean Y, Szczepanowska K, Trifunovic A, Braun T, Heumann H, Heumann R, Hovemann B, Moore DJ, Krüger M. Human R1441C LRRK2 regulates the synaptic vesicle proteome and phosphoproteome in a Drosophila model of Parkinson's disease. Hum Mol Genet 2016; 25:5365-5382. [PMID: 27794539 PMCID: PMC6078604 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddw352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 10/06/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause late-onset, autosomal dominant familial Parkinson`s disease (PD) and variation at the LRRK2 locus contributes to the risk for idiopathic PD. LRRK2 can function as a protein kinase and mutations lead to increased kinase activity. To elucidate the pathophysiological mechanism of the R1441C mutation in the GTPase domain of LRRK2, we expressed human wild-type or R1441C LRRK2 in dopaminergic neurons of Drosophila and observe reduced locomotor activity, impaired survival and an age-dependent degeneration of dopaminergic neurons thereby creating a new PD-like model. To explore the function of LRRK2 variants in vivo, we performed mass spectrometry and quantified 3,616 proteins in the fly brain. We identify several differentially-expressed cytoskeletal, mitochondrial and synaptic vesicle proteins (SV), including synaptotagmin-1, syntaxin-1A and Rab3, in the brain of this LRRK2 fly model. In addition, a global phosphoproteome analysis reveals the enhanced phosphorylation of several SV proteins, including synaptojanin-1 (pThr1131) and the microtubule-associated protein futsch (pSer4106) in the brain of R1441C hLRRK2 flies. The direct phosphorylation of human synaptojanin-1 by R1441C hLRRK2 could further be confirmed by in vitro kinase assays. A protein-protein interaction screen in the fly brain confirms that LRRK2 robustly interacts with numerous SV proteins, including synaptojanin-1 and EndophilinA. Our proteomic, phosphoproteomic and interactome study in the Drosophila brain provides a systematic analyses of R1441C hLRRK2-induced pathobiological mechanisms in this model. We demonstrate for the first time that the R1441C mutation located within the LRRK2 GTPase domain induces the enhanced phosphorylation of SV proteins in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Shariful Islam
- Silantes GmbH, Munich, Germany
- Institute for Genetics, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA
| | - Hendrik Nolte
- Institute for Genetics, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany
| | - Wright Jacob
- Biochemistry II, Molecular Neurobiochemistry Faculty for Chemistry and Biochemistry Ruhr-University Bochum, NC 7/174 Universitaetsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany
| | - Anna B. Ziegler
- CNRS, UMR6265 Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, F-21000 Dijon, France
- INRA, UMR1324 Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, F-21000 Dijon, France
- Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, UMR Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | | | - Yael Grosjean
- CNRS, UMR6265 Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, F-21000 Dijon, France
- INRA, UMR1324 Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, F-21000 Dijon, France
- Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, UMR Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Karolina Szczepanowska
- Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Aging, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Aleksandra Trifunovic
- Institute for Genetics, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany
- Institute for Mitochondrial Diseases and Aging, Medical Faculty, University of Cologne, D-50931 Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine (CMMC), University of Cologne, Germany
| | - Thomas Braun
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Ludwigstr. 43, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | | | - Rolf Heumann
- Biochemistry II, Molecular Neurobiochemistry Faculty for Chemistry and Biochemistry Ruhr-University Bochum, NC 7/174 Universitaetsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany
| | | | - Darren J. Moore
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA
| | - Marcus Krüger
- Institute for Genetics, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging‐Associated Diseases (CECAD), Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine (CMMC), University of Cologne, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Ludwigstr. 43, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
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30
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Bellucci A, Mercuri NB, Venneri A, Faustini G, Longhena F, Pizzi M, Missale C, Spano P. Review: Parkinson's disease: from synaptic loss to connectome dysfunction. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2016; 42:77-94. [PMID: 26613567 DOI: 10.1111/nan.12297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Revised: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder with prominent loss of nigro-striatal dopaminergic neurons. The resultant dopamine (DA) deficiency underlies the onset of typical motor symptoms (MS). Nonetheless, individuals affected by PD usually show a plethora of nonmotor symptoms (NMS), part of which may precede the onset of motor signs. Besides DA neuron degeneration, a key neuropathological alteration in the PD brain is Lewy pathology. This is characterized by abnormal intraneuronal (Lewy bodies) and intraneuritic (Lewy neurites) deposits of fibrillary aggregates mainly composed of α-synuclein. Lewy pathology has been hypothesized to progress in a stereotypical pattern over the course of PD and α-synuclein mutations and multiplications have been found to cause monogenic forms of the disease, thus raising the question as to whether this protein is pathogenic in this disorder. Findings showing that the majority of α-synuclein aggregates in PD are located at presynapses and this underlies the onset of synaptic and axonal degeneration, coupled to the fact that functional connectivity changes correlate with disease progression, strengthen this idea. Indeed, by altering the proper action of key molecules involved in the control of neurotransmitter release and re-cycling as well as synaptic and structural plasticity, α-synuclein deposition may crucially impair axonal trafficking, resulting in a series of noxious events, whose pressure may inevitably degenerate into neuronal damage and death. Here, we provide a timely overview of the molecular features of synaptic loss in PD and disclose their possible translation into clinical symptoms through functional disconnection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Bellucci
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | | | - Annalena Venneri
- IRCCS Fondazione Ospedale San Camillo (NHS-Italy), Venice Lido, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Gaia Faustini
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Francesca Longhena
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Marina Pizzi
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy.,IRCCS Fondazione Ospedale San Camillo (NHS-Italy), Venice Lido, Italy
| | - Cristina Missale
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - PierFranco Spano
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy.,IRCCS Fondazione Ospedale San Camillo (NHS-Italy), Venice Lido, Italy
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Atashrazm F, Dzamko N. LRRK2 inhibitors and their potential in the treatment of Parkinson's disease: current perspectives. Clin Pharmacol 2016; 8:177-189. [PMID: 27799832 PMCID: PMC5076802 DOI: 10.2147/cpaa.s102191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Major advances in understanding how genetics underlies Parkinson's disease (PD) have provided new opportunities for understanding disease pathogenesis and potential new targets for therapeutic intervention. One such target is leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), an enigmatic enzyme implicated in both familial and idiopathic PD risk. Both academia and industry have promoted the development of potent and selective inhibitors of LRRK2, and these are currently being employed to assess the safety and efficacy of such compounds in preclinical models of PD. This review examines the evidence that LRRK2 kinase activity contributes to the pathogenesis of PD and outlines recent progress on inhibitor development and early results from preclinical safety and efficacy testing. This review also looks at some of the challenges remaining for translation of LRRK2 inhibitors to the clinic, if indeed this is ultimately warranted. As a disease with no current cure that is increasing in prevalence in line with an aging population, there is much need for developing new treatments for PD, and targeting LRRK2 is currently a promising option.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicolas Dzamko
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW, Australia
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Phos-tag analysis of Rab10 phosphorylation by LRRK2: a powerful assay for assessing kinase function and inhibitors. Biochem J 2016; 473:2671-85. [PMID: 27474410 PMCID: PMC5003698 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20160557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Autosomal dominant mutations that activate the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause inherited Parkinson's disease. Recent work has revealed that LRRK2 directly phosphorylates a conserved threonine/serine residue in the effector-binding switch-II motif of a number of Rab GTPase proteins, including Rab10. Here we describe a facile and robust method to assess phosphorylation of endogenous Rab10 in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), lung and spleen-derived B-cells, based on the ability of the Phos-tag reagent to retard the electrophoretic mobility of LRRK2-phosphorylated Rab10. We exploit this assay to show that phosphorylation of Rab10 is ablated in kinase-inactive LRRK2[D2017A] knockin MEFs and mouse lung, demonstrating that LRRK2 is the major Rab10 kinase in these cells/tissue. We also establish that the Phos-tag assay can be deployed to monitor the impact that activating LRRK2 pathogenic (G2019S and R1441G) knockin mutations have on stimulating Rab10 phosphorylation. We show that upon addition of LRRK2 inhibitors, Rab10 is dephosphorylated within 1-2 min, markedly more rapidly than the Ser(935) and Ser(1292) biomarker sites that require 40-80 min. Furthermore, we find that phosphorylation of Rab10 is suppressed in LRRK2[S910A+S935A] knockin MEFs indicating that phosphorylation of Ser(910) and Ser(935) and potentially 14-3-3 binding play a role in facilitating the phosphorylation of Rab10 by LRRK2 in vivo The Rab Phos-tag assay has the potential to significantly aid with evaluating the effect that inhibitors, mutations and other factors have on the LRRK2 signalling pathway.
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Leung C, Jia Z. Mouse Genetic Models of Human Brain Disorders. Front Genet 2016; 7:40. [PMID: 27047540 PMCID: PMC4803727 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2016.00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the past three decades, genetic manipulations in mice have been used in neuroscience as a major approach to investigate the in vivo function of genes and their alterations. In particular, gene targeting techniques using embryonic stem cells have revolutionized the field of mammalian genetics and have been at the forefront in the generation of numerous mouse models of human brain disorders. In this review, we will first examine childhood developmental disorders such as autism, intellectual disability, Fragile X syndrome, and Williams-Beuren syndrome. We will then explore psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and lastly, neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. We will outline the creation of these mouse models that range from single gene deletions, subtle point mutations to multi-gene manipulations, and discuss the key behavioral phenotypes of these mice. Ultimately, the analysis of the models outlined in this review will enhance our understanding of the in vivo role and underlying mechanisms of disease-related genes in both normal brain function and brain disorders, and provide potential therapeutic targets and strategies to prevent and treat these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celeste Leung
- The Hospital for Sick Children, Program in Neurosciences and Mental Health, Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning, TorontoON, Canada; Program in Physiology, University of Toronto, TorontoON, Canada
| | - Zhengping Jia
- The Hospital for Sick Children, Program in Neurosciences and Mental Health, Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning, TorontoON, Canada; Program in Physiology, University of Toronto, TorontoON, Canada
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Walters JL, Lansdell TA, Lookingland KJ, Baker LE. The effects of gestational and chronic atrazine exposure on motor behaviors and striatal dopamine in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2015; 289:185-92. [PMID: 26440580 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2015.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2015] [Revised: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
This study sought to investigate the effects of environmentally relevant gestational followed by continued chronic exposure to the herbicide, atrazine, on motor function, cognition, and neurochemical indices of nigrostriatal dopamine (DA) activity in male rats. Dams were treated with 100 μg/kg atrazine, 10mg/kg atrazine, or vehicle on gestational day 1 through postnatal day 21. Upon weaning, male offspring continued daily vehicle or atrazine gavage treatments for an additional six months. Subjects were tested in a series of behavioral assays, and 24h after the last treatment, tissue samples from the striatum were analyzed for DA and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC). At 10mg/kg, this herbicide was found to produce modest disruptions in motor functioning, and at both dose levels it significantly lowered striatal DA and DOPAC concentrations. These results suggest that exposures to atrazine have the potential to disrupt nigrostriatal DA neurons and behaviors associated with motor functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Walters
- Western Michigan University, Department of Psychology, 1903 W Michigan Ave, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5439, United States.
| | - Theresa A Lansdell
- Michigan State University, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 1355 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI 48824, United States.
| | - Keith J Lookingland
- Michigan State University, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 1355 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI 48824, United States.
| | - Lisa E Baker
- Western Michigan University, Department of Psychology, 1903 W Michigan Ave, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5439, United States.
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Progressive dopaminergic alterations and mitochondrial abnormalities in LRRK2 G2019S knock-in mice. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 78:172-95. [PMID: 25836420 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 02/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the LRRK2 gene represent the most common genetic cause of late onset Parkinson's disease. The physiological and pathological roles of LRRK2 are yet to be fully determined but evidence points towards LRRK2 mutations causing a gain in kinase function, impacting on neuronal maintenance, vesicular dynamics and neurotransmitter release. To explore the role of physiological levels of mutant LRRK2, we created knock-in (KI) mice harboring the most common LRRK2 mutation G2019S in their own genome. We have performed comprehensive dopaminergic, behavioral and neuropathological analyses in this model up to 24months of age. We find elevated kinase activity in the brain of both heterozygous and homozygous mice. Although normal at 6months, by 12months of age, basal and pharmacologically induced extracellular release of dopamine is impaired in both heterozygous and homozygous mice, corroborating previous findings in transgenic models over-expressing mutant LRRK2. Via in vivo microdialysis measurement of basal and drug-evoked extracellular release of dopamine and its metabolites, our findings indicate that exocytotic release from the vesicular pool is impaired. Furthermore, profound mitochondrial abnormalities are evident in the striatum of older homozygous G2019S KI mice, which are consistent with mitochondrial fission arrest. We anticipate that this G2019S mouse line will be a useful pre-clinical model for further evaluation of early mechanistic events in LRRK2 pathogenesis and for second-hit approaches to model disease progression.
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Daniel G, Moore DJ. Modeling LRRK2 Pathobiology in Parkinson's Disease: From Yeast to Rodents. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2015; 22:331-368. [PMID: 24850078 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2014_311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2, PARK8) gene represent the most common cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD) with autosomal dominant inheritance, whereas common variation at the LRRK2 genomic locus influences the risk of developing idiopathic PD. LRRK2 is a member of the ROCO protein family and contains multiple domains, including Ras-of-Complex (ROC) GTPase, kinase, and protein-protein interaction domains. In the last decade, the biochemical characterization of LRRK2 and the development of animal model s have provided important insight into the pathobiology of LRRK2. In this review, we comprehensively describe the different models employed to understand LRRK2-associated PD, including yeast, invertebrates, transgenic and viral-based rodents, and patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells. We discuss how these models have contributed to understanding LRRK2 pathobiology and the advantages and limitations of each model for exploring aspects of LRRK2-associated PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Daniel
- School of Life Sciences, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Lizarraga LE, Cholanians AB, Phan AV, Herndon JM, Lau SS, Monks TJ. Vesicular monoamine transporter 2 and the acute and long-term response to 3,4-(±)-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Toxicol Sci 2014; 143:209-19. [PMID: 25370842 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfu222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
3,4-(±)-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) is a ring-substituted amphetamine derivative with potent psychostimulant properties. The neuropharmacological effects of MDMA are biphasic in nature, initially causing synaptic monoamine release, primarily of serotonin (5-HT). Conversely, the long-term effects of MDMA manifest as prolonged depletions in 5-HT, and reductions in 5-HT reuptake transporter (SERT), indicative of serotonergic neurotoxicity. MDMA-induced 5-HT efflux relies upon disruption of vesicular monoamine storage, which increases cytosolic 5-HT concentrations available for release via a carrier-mediated mechanism. The vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) is responsible for packaging monoamine neurotransmitters into cytosolic vesicles. Thus, VMAT2 is a molecular target for a number of psychostimulant drugs, including methamphetamine and MDMA. We investigated the effects of depressed VMAT2 activity on the adverse responses to MDMA, via reversible inhibition of the VMAT2 protein with Ro4-1284. A single dose of MDMA (20 mg/kg, subcutaneous) induced significant hyperthermia in rats. Ro4-1284 (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) pretreatment prevented the thermogenic effects of MDMA, instead causing a transient decrease in body temperature. MDMA-treated rats exhibited marked increases in horizontal velocity and rearing behavior. In the presence of Ro4-1284, MDMA-mediated horizontal hyperlocomotion was delayed and attenuated, whereas rearing activity was abolished. Finally, Ro4-1284 prevented deficits in 5-HT content in rat cortex and striatum, and reduced depletions in striatal SERT staining, 7 days after MDMA administration. In summary, acute inhibition of VMAT2 by Ro4-1284 protected against MDMA-mediated hyperthermia, hyperactivity, and serotonergic neurotoxicity. The data suggest the involvement of VMAT2 in the thermoregulatory, behavioral, and neurotoxic effects of MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucina E Lizarraga
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Aram B Cholanians
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Andy V Phan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Joseph M Herndon
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Serrine S Lau
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Terrence J Monks
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
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