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Li Q, Li M, Wu C. Methods and measures of source monitoring in children: A scoping review. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 39315748 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 09/04/2024] [Indexed: 09/25/2024]
Abstract
Source monitoring (SM) refers to attributing sources of information. There are various methods for measuring SM in children. We searched the PubMed, PsycINFO, Embase, Web of Science and Cochrane Library databases from their inception to February 24, 2023, to summarize the methods and measures of SM in children, identifying 141 studies. The procedure for the SM tasks encompassed encoding, interval and testing. The encoding tasks were classified into ground-based activities (n = 67), computer-based experiments (n = 42) and mixed methods (n = 34). The testing approaches were categorized into old/new recognition and source discrimination, n-alternative forced-choice, yes/no questions and recall/direct questions. Among 10 commonly used indicators, source-correct, source-incorrect, discrimination score and source accuracy were recommended to present the SM function. We also discussed the advantages and disadvantages of different SM methods in children, providing a reference for researchers to design and select SM measurements that meet their research objectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuhong Li
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Haidian District, Beijing, China
| | - Mengyuan Li
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Haidian District, Beijing, China
| | - Chao Wu
- School of Nursing, Peking University, Haidian District, Beijing, China
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Peretti G, Manzi F, Di Dio C, Cangelosi A, Harris PL, Massaro D, Marchetti A. Can a robot lie? Young children's understanding of intentionality beneath false statements. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Peretti
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milan Italy
| | - Federico Manzi
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milan Italy
| | - Cinzia Di Dio
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milan Italy
| | | | - Paul L. Harris
- Graduate School of Education Harvard University Cambridge Massachusetts USA
| | - Davide Massaro
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milan Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milan Italy
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Frick A, Wright HR, Witt A, Taconnat L. The underlying processes of episodic memory development: From a unique contribution of representation to the increasing use of semantic organization supported by cognitive control. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2022.101217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Chabal S, Hayakawa S, Marian V. How a picture becomes a word: individual differences in the development of language-mediated visual search. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2021; 6:2. [PMID: 33398473 PMCID: PMC7782671 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-020-00268-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the course of our lifetimes, we accumulate extensive experience associating the things that we see with the words we have learned to describe them. As a result, adults engaged in a visual search task will often look at items with labels that share phonological features with the target object, demonstrating that language can become activated even in non-linguistic contexts. This highly interactive cognitive system is the culmination of our linguistic and visual experiences-and yet, our understanding of how the relationship between language and vision develops remains limited. The present study explores the developmental trajectory of language-mediated visual search by examining whether children can be distracted by linguistic competitors during a non-linguistic visual search task. Though less robust compared to what has been previously observed with adults, we find evidence of phonological competition in children as young as 8 years old. Furthermore, the extent of language activation is predicted by individual differences in linguistic, visual, and domain-general cognitive abilities, with the greatest phonological competition observed among children with strong language abilities combined with weaker visual memory and inhibitory control. We propose that linguistic expertise is fundamental to the development of language-mediated visual search, but that the rate and degree of automatic language activation depends on interactions among a broader network of cognitive abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Chabal
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, 2240 North Campus Drive, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Sayuri Hayakawa
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, 2240 North Campus Drive, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA.
| | - Viorica Marian
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, 2240 North Campus Drive, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
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Effects of Source Recall Conditions on the Relationships among Source Monitoring, Inhibitory Control, and Working Memory. ADONGHAKOEJI 2017. [DOI: 10.5723/kjcs.2017.38.2.107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Petersen IT, Hoyniak CP, McQuillan ME, Bates JE, Staples AD. Measuring the development of inhibitory control: The challenge of heterotypic continuity. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2016; 40:25-71. [PMID: 27346906 PMCID: PMC4917209 DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2016.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Inhibitory control is thought to demonstrate heterotypic continuity, in other words, continuity in its purpose or function but changes in its behavioral manifestation over time. This creates major methodological challenges for studying the development of inhibitory control in childhood including construct validity, developmental appropriateness and sensitivity of measures, and longitudinal factorial invariance. We meta-analyzed 198 studies using measures of inhibitory control, a key aspect of self-regulation, to estimate age ranges of usefulness for each measure. The inhibitory control measures showed limited age ranges of usefulness owing to ceiling/floor effects. Tasks were useful, on average, for a developmental span of less than 3 years. This suggests that measuring inhibitory control over longer spans of development may require use of different measures at different time points, seeking to measure heterotypic continuity. We suggest ways to study the development of inhibitory control, with overlapping measurement in a structural equation modeling framework and tests of longitudinal factorial or measurement invariance. However, as valuable as this would be for the area, we also point out that establishing longitudinal factorial invariance is neither sufficient nor necessary for examining developmental change. Any study of developmental change should be guided by theory and construct validity, aiming toward a better empirical and theoretical approach to the selection and combination of measures.
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Roberts KP, Brubacher SP, Drohan-Jennings D, Glisic U, Powell MB, Friedman WJ. Developmental Differences in the Ability to Provide Temporal Information About Repeated Events. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Una Glisic
- Psychology; Wilfrid Laurier University; Waterloo Canada
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Earhart B, Roberts KP. The role of executive function in children's source monitoring with varying retrieval strategies. Front Psychol 2014; 5:405. [PMID: 24847302 PMCID: PMC4021134 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research on the relationship between executive function and source monitoring in young children has been inconclusive, with studies finding conflicting results about whether working memory and inhibitory control are related to source-monitoring ability. In this study, the role of working memory and inhibitory control in recognition memory and source monitoring with two different retrieval strategies were examined. Children (N = 263) aged 4–8 participated in science activities with two sources. They were later given a recognition and source-monitoring test, and completed measures of working memory and inhibitory control. During the source-monitoring test, half of the participants were asked about sources serially (one after the other) whereas the other half of the children were asked about sources in parallel (considering both sources simultaneously). Results demonstrated that working memory was a predictor of source-monitoring accuracy in both conditions, but inhibitory control was only related to source accuracy in the parallel condition. When age was controlled these relationships were no longer significant, suggesting that a more general cognitive development factor is a stronger predictor of source monitoring than executive function alone. Interestingly, the children aged 4–6 years made more accurate source decisions in the parallel condition than in the serial condition. The older children (aged 7–8) were overall more accurate than the younger children, and their accuracy did not differ as a function of interview condition. Suggestions are provided to guide further research in this area that will clarify the diverse results of previous studies examining whether executive function is a cognitive prerequisite for effective source monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Becky Earhart
- Department of Psychology, Wilfrid Laurier University Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Kim P Roberts
- Department of Psychology, Wilfrid Laurier University Waterloo, ON, Canada
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Rajan V, Cuevas K, Bell MA. The Contribution of Executive Function to Source Memory Development in Early Childhood. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2014; 15:304-324. [PMID: 24829540 DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2013.763809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Age-related differences in episodic memory judgments assessing recall of fact information and the source of this information were examined. The role of executive function in supporting early episodic memory ability was also explored. Four- and 6-year-old children were taught 10 novel facts from two different sources (experimenter or puppet) and memory for both fact and source information was later tested. Measures of working memory, inhibitory control, and set-shifting were obtained to produce an indicator of children's executive function. Six-year-olds recalled more fact and source information than 4-year-olds. Regression analyses revealed that age, language ability, and executive function accounted for unique variance in children's fact recall and source recall performance. These findings suggest a link between episodic memory and executive function, and we propose that developmental investigations should further explore this association.
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Bright-Paul A, Jarrold C, Wright DB, Guillaume S. Children's memory distortions following social contact with a co-witness: Disentangling social and cognitive mechanisms. Memory 2012; 20:580-95. [DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2012.690039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Otgaar H, Alberts H, Cuppens L. How Cognitive Resources Alter our Perception of the Past: Ego Depletion Enhances the Susceptibility to Suggestion. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.1810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Montgomery DE, Koeltzow TE. A review of the day–night task: The Stroop paradigm and interference control in young children. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2010.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Wimmer MC, Howe ML. Are children's memory illusions created differently from those of adults? Evidence from levels-of-processing and divided attention paradigms. J Exp Child Psychol 2010; 107:31-49. [PMID: 20417937 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2010.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2010] [Revised: 03/20/2010] [Accepted: 03/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In two experiments, we investigated the robustness and automaticity of adults' and children's generation of false memories by using a levels-of-processing paradigm (Experiment 1) and a divided attention paradigm (Experiment 2). The first experiment revealed that when information was encoded at a shallow level, true recognition rates decreased for all ages. For false recognition, when information was encoded on a shallow level, we found a different pattern for young children compared with that for older children and adults. False recognition rates were related to the overall amount of correctly remembered information for 7-year-olds, whereas no such association was found for the other age groups. In the second experiment, divided attention decreased true recognition for all ages. In contrast, children's (7- and 11-year-olds) false recognition rates were again dependent on the overall amount of correctly remembered information, whereas adults' false recognition was left unaffected. Overall, children's false recognition rates changed when levels of processing or divided attention was manipulated in comparison with adults. Together, these results suggest that there may be both quantitative and qualitative changes in false memory rates with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina C Wimmer
- Centre for Research in Human Development, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YF, UK.
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Pasalich DS, Livesey DJ, Livesey EJ. Performance on Stroop-like assessments of inhibitory control by 4- and 5-year-old children. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Karpinski AC, Scullin MH. Suggestibility under pressure: Theory of mind, executive function, and suggestibility in preschoolers. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2009.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Roberts KP, Powell MB. The roles of prior experience and the timing of misinformation presentation on young children's event memories. Child Dev 2007; 78:1137-52. [PMID: 17650130 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01057.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The current study addressed how the timing of interviews affected children's memories of unique and repeated events. Five- to six-year-olds (N=125) participated in activities 1 or 4 times and were misinformed either 3 or 21 days after the only or last event. Although single-experience children were subsequently less accurate in the 21- versus 3-day condition, the timing of the misinformation session did not affect memories of repeated-experience children regarding invariant details. Children were more suggestible in the 21- versus 3-day condition for variable details when the test occurred soon after misinformation presentation. Thus, timing differentially affected memories of single and repeated events and depended on the combination of event-misinformation and misinformation-test delays rather than the overall retention interval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim P Roberts
- Wilfrid Laurier University, Department of Psychology, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
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Melinder A, Endestad T, Magnussen S. Relations between episodic memory, suggestibility, theory of mind, and cognitive inhibition in the preschool child. Scand J Psychol 2006; 47:485-95. [PMID: 17107497 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9450.2006.00542.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The development of episodic memory, its relation to theory of mind (ToM), executive functions (e.g., cognitive inhibition), and to suggestibility was studied. Children (n= 115) between 3 and 6 years of age saw two versions of a video film and were tested for their memory of critical elements of the videos. Results indicated similar developmental trends for all memory measures, ToM, and inhibition, but ToM and inhibition were not associated with any memory measures. Correlations involving source memory was found in relation to specific questions, whereas inhibition and ToM were significantly correlated to resistance to suggestions. A regression analysis showed that age was the main contributor to resistance to suggestions, to correct source monitoring, and to correct responses to specific questions. Inhibition was also a significant main predictor of resistance to suggestive questions, whereas the relative contribution of ToM was wiped out when an extended model was tested.
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