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Bo R, Xu S, Yang Y, Zhang Y. Mechanically-Guided 3D Assembly for Architected Flexible Electronics. Chem Rev 2023; 123:11137-11189. [PMID: 37676059 PMCID: PMC10540141 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Architected flexible electronic devices with rationally designed 3D geometries have found essential applications in biology, medicine, therapeutics, sensing/imaging, energy, robotics, and daily healthcare. Mechanically-guided 3D assembly methods, exploiting mechanics principles of materials and structures to transform planar electronic devices fabricated using mature semiconductor techniques into 3D architected ones, are promising routes to such architected flexible electronic devices. Here, we comprehensively review mechanically-guided 3D assembly methods for architected flexible electronics. Mainstream methods of mechanically-guided 3D assembly are classified and discussed on the basis of their fundamental deformation modes (i.e., rolling, folding, curving, and buckling). Diverse 3D interconnects and device forms are then summarized, which correspond to the two key components of an architected flexible electronic device. Afterward, structure-induced functionalities are highlighted to provide guidelines for function-driven structural designs of flexible electronics, followed by a collective summary of their resulting applications. Finally, conclusions and outlooks are given, covering routes to achieve extreme deformations and dimensions, inverse design methods, and encapsulation strategies of architected 3D flexible electronics, as well as perspectives on future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renheng Bo
- Applied
Mechanics Laboratory, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Laboratory
of Flexible Electronics Technology, Tsinghua
University, 100084 Beijing, People’s Republic
of China
| | - Shiwei Xu
- Applied
Mechanics Laboratory, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Laboratory
of Flexible Electronics Technology, Tsinghua
University, 100084 Beijing, People’s Republic
of China
| | - Youzhou Yang
- Applied
Mechanics Laboratory, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Laboratory
of Flexible Electronics Technology, Tsinghua
University, 100084 Beijing, People’s Republic
of China
| | - Yihui Zhang
- Applied
Mechanics Laboratory, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Laboratory
of Flexible Electronics Technology, Tsinghua
University, 100084 Beijing, People’s Republic
of China
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2
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Taylor JM, Luan H, Lewis JA, Rogers JA, Nuzzo RG, Braun PV. Biomimetic and Biologically Compliant Soft Architectures via 3D and 4D Assembly Methods: A Perspective. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2108391. [PMID: 35233865 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202108391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Recent progress in soft material chemistry and enabling methods of 3D and 4D fabrication-emerging programmable material designs and associated assembly methods for the construction of complex functional structures-is highlighted. The underlying advances in this science allow the creation of soft material architectures with properties and shapes that programmably vary with time. The ability to control composition from the molecular to the macroscale is highlighted-most notably through examples that focus on biomimetic and biologically compliant soft materials. Such advances, when coupled with the ability to program material structure and properties across multiple scales via microfabrication, 3D printing, or other assembly techniques, give rise to responsive (4D) architectures. The challenges and prospects for progress in this emerging field in terms of its capacities for integrating chemistry, form, and function are described in the context of exemplary soft material systems demonstrating important but heretofore difficult-to-realize biomimetic and biologically compliant behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay M Taylor
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Materials Research Laboratory, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 104 South Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Haiwen Luan
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Jennifer A Lewis
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, 29 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - John A Rogers
- Querrey Simpson Institute for Bioelectronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- Departments of Materials Science and Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, Neurological Surgery, Chemistry, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Ralph G Nuzzo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 600 S Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Surface and Corrosion Science, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Drottning Kristinasväg 51, Stockholm, 10044, Sweden
| | - Paul V Braun
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Materials Research Laboratory, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 104 South Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 600 S Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
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3
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Degradation Study of Thin-Film Silicon Structures in a Cell Culture Medium. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22030802. [PMID: 35161547 PMCID: PMC8838160 DOI: 10.3390/s22030802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Thin-film silicon (Si)-based transient electronics represents an emerging technology that enables spontaneous dissolution, absorption and, finally, physical disappearance in a controlled manner under physiological conditions, and has attracted increasing attention in pertinent clinical applications such as biomedical implants for on-body sensing, disease diagnostics, and therapeutics. The degradation behavior of thin-film Si materials and devices is critically dependent on the device structure as well as the environment. In this work, we experimentally investigated the dissolution of planar Si thin films and micropatterned Si pillar arrays in a cell culture medium, and systematically analyzed the evolution of their topographical, physical, and chemical properties during the hydrolysis. We discovered that the cell culture medium significantly accelerates the degradation process, and Si pillar arrays present more prominent degradation effects by creating rougher surfaces, complicating surface states, and decreasing the electrochemical impedance. Additionally, the dissolution process leads to greatly reduced mechanical strength. Finally, in vitro cell culture studies demonstrate desirable biocompatibility of corroded Si pillars. The results provide a guideline for the use of thin-film Si materials and devices as transient implants in biomedicine.
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Wang C, Rubakhin SS, Enright MJ, Sweedler JV, Nuzzo RG. 3D Particle Free Printing of Biocompatible Conductive Hydrogel Platforms for Neuron Growth and Electrophysiological Recording. ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS 2021; 31:2010246. [PMID: 34305503 PMCID: PMC8297588 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202010246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Electrically conductive 3D periodic microscaffolds are fabricated using a particle-free direct ink writing approach for use as neuronal growth and electrophysiological recording platforms. A poly (2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA)/pyrrole ink, followed by chemical in situ polymerization of pyrrole, enables hydrogel printing through nozzles as small as 1 μm. These conductive hydrogels can pattern complex 2D and 3D structures and have good biocompatibility with test cell cultures (~94.5% viability after 7 days). Hydrogel arrays promote extensive neurite outgrowth of cultured Aplysia californica pedal ganglion neurons. This platform allows extracellular electrophysiological recording of steady-state and stimulated electrical neuronal activities. In summation, this 3D conductive ink printing process enables preparation of biocompatible and micron-sized structures to create customized in vitro electrophysiological recording platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Wang
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory and Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1304 West Green Street, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | | | - Michael J Enright
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Jonathan V Sweedler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 71 RAL, Box 63-5, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Ralph G Nuzzo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
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5
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Deng H, Xu X, Zhang C, Su JW, Huang G, Lin J. Reprogrammable 3D Shaping from Phase Change Microstructures in Elastic Composites. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:4014-4021. [PMID: 31872759 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b20818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we demonstrate reprogrammable 3D structures that are assembled from elastic composite sheets made from elastic materials and phase change microparticles. By controlling the phase change of the microparticles by localized thermal patterning, anisotropic residual strain is generated in the pre-stretched composite sheets and then triggers 3D structure assembly when the composite sheets are released from the external stress. Modulation of the geometries and location of the thermal patterns leads to complex 2D-3D shaping behaviors such as bending, folding, buckling, and wrinkling. Because of the reversible phase change of the microparticles, these programmed 3D structures can later be recovered to 2D sheets once they are heated for reprogramming different 3D structures. To predict the 3D structures assembled from the 2D composite sheets, finite element modeling was employed, which showed reasonable agreement with the experiments. The demonstrated strategy of reversibly programming 3D shapes by controlling the phase change microstructures in the elastic composites offers unique capabilities in fabricating functional devices such as a rewritable "paper" and a shape reconfigurable pneumatic actuator.
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Yi N, Cui H, Zhang LG, Cheng H. Integration of biological systems with electronic-mechanical assemblies. Acta Biomater 2019; 95:91-111. [PMID: 31004844 PMCID: PMC6710161 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2019.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Biological systems continuously interact with the surrounding environment because they are dynamically evolving. The interaction is achieved through mechanical, electrical, chemical, biological, thermal, optical, or a synergistic combination of these cues. To provide a fundamental understanding of the interaction, recent efforts that integrate biological systems with the electronic-mechanical assemblies create unique opportunities for simultaneous monitoring and eliciting the responses to the biological system. Recent innovations in materials, fabrication processes, and device integration approaches have created the enablers to yield bio-integrated devices to interface with the biological system, ranging from cells and tissues to organs and living individual. In this short review, we will provide a brief overview of the recent development on the integration of the biological systems with electronic-mechanical assemblies across multiple scales, with applications ranging from healthcare monitoring to therapeutic options such as drug delivery and rehabilitation therapies. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: An overview of the recent progress on the integration of the biological system with both electronic and mechanical assemblies is discussed. The integration creates the unique opportunity to simultaneously monitor and elicit the responses to the biological system, which provides a fundamental understanding of the interaction between the biological system and the electronic-mechanical assemblies. Recent innovations in materials, fabrication processes, and device integration approaches have created the enablers to yield bio-integrated devices to interface with the biological system, ranging from cells and tissues to organs and living individual.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Yi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Haitao Cui
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Lijie Grace Zhang
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; Departments of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, and Medicine, The George Washington University, Washington DC 20052, USA
| | - Huanyu Cheng
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, and Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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7
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Cheng X, Zhang Y. Micro/Nanoscale 3D Assembly by Rolling, Folding, Curving, and Buckling Approaches. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2019; 31:e1901895. [PMID: 31265197 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201901895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The miniaturization of electronics has been an important topic of study for several decades. The established roadmaps following Moore's Law have encountered bottlenecks in recent years, as planar processing techniques are already close to their physical limits. To bypass some of the intrinsic challenges of planar technologies, more and more efforts have been devoted to the development of 3D electronics, through either direct 3D fabrication or indirect 3D assembly. Recent research efforts into direct 3D fabrication have focused on the development of 3D transistor technologies and 3D heterogeneous integration schemes, but these technologies are typically constrained by the accessible range of sophisticated 3D geometries and the complexity of the fabrication processes. As an alternative route, 3D assembly methods make full use of mature planar technologies to form predefined 2D precursor structures in the desired materials and sizes, which are then transformed into targeted 3D mesostructures by mechanical deformation. The latest progress in the area of micro/nanoscale 3D assembly, covering the various classes of methods through rolling, folding, curving, and buckling assembly, is discussed, focusing on the design concepts, principles, and applications of different methods, followed by an outlook on the remaining challenges and open opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Cheng
- AML, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Beijing, 100084, China
- Center for Flexible Electronics Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Yihui Zhang
- AML, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Beijing, 100084, China
- Center for Flexible Electronics Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
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Chen G, Cui Y, Chen X. Proactively modulating mechanical behaviors of materials at multiscale for mechano-adaptable devices. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 48:1434-1447. [PMID: 30534704 DOI: 10.1039/c8cs00801a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
How materials behave when subjected to mechanical stresses is studied by mechanics of materials. However, the application of flexible and stretchable devices exposes materials to dynamic mechanical environments. Therefore, mechano-adaptable materials and devices that can respond as pre-designed have been explored. There are two main ways to proactively modulate mechanical behaviors for materials, which involve molecular design and structural design. Molecular design has effectively integrated mechanically sensitive groups into synthetic materials for anticipated mechano-response. Structural design has broadened the boundary of conventional materials, generating mechanical metamaterials at multiscale with unique mechanical properties. Furthermore, molecular, structural plus systematic design for the application of mechano-adaptable devices have realized better electrical performance, human interaction, long-term sustainability, and even higher efficiency. Various devices based on design ideas are summarized and future challenges for proactively modulating mechanical behaviors of mechano-adaptable devices are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geng Chen
- Innovative Centre for Flexible Devices (iFLEX)
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore
| | - Yajing Cui
- Innovative Centre for Flexible Devices (iFLEX)
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore
| | - Xiaodong Chen
- Innovative Centre for Flexible Devices (iFLEX)
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore
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9
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Kim BH, Lee J, Won SM, Xie Z, Chang JK, Yu Y, Cho YK, Jang H, Jeong JY, Lee Y, Ryu A, Kim DH, Lee KH, Lee JY, Liu F, Wang X, Huo Q, Min S, Wu D, Ji B, Banks A, Kim J, Oh N, Jin HM, Han S, Kang D, Lee CH, Song YM, Zhang Y, Huang Y, Jang KI, Rogers JA. Three-Dimensional Silicon Electronic Systems Fabricated by Compressive Buckling Process. ACS NANO 2018; 12:4164-4171. [PMID: 29641889 PMCID: PMC5986289 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b00180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Recently developed approaches in deterministic assembly allow for controlled, geometric transformation of two-dimensional structures into complex, engineered three-dimensional layouts. Attractive features include applicability to wide ranging layout designs and dimensions along with the capacity to integrate planar thin film materials and device layouts. The work reported here establishes further capabilities for directly embedding high-performance electronic devices into the resultant 3D constructs based on silicon nanomembranes (Si NMs) as the active materials in custom devices or microscale components released from commercial wafer sources. Systematic experimental studies and theoretical analysis illustrate the key ideas through varied 3D architectures, from interconnected bridges and coils to extended chiral structures, each of which embed n-channel Si NM MOSFETs (nMOS), Si NM diodes, and p-channel silicon MOSFETs (pMOS). Examples in stretchable/deformable systems highlight additional features of these platforms. These strategies are immediately applicable to other wide-ranging classes of materials and device technologies that can be rendered in two-dimensional layouts, from systems for energy storage, to photovoltaics, optoelectronics, and others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bong Hoon Kim
- Departments of Materials Science and Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, Chemistry, Neurological Surgery, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Simpson Querrey Institute & Feinberg Medical School, Center for Bio-Integrated Electronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Jungyup Lee
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Sang Min Won
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Zhaoqian Xie
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- AML, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Center for Mechanics and Materials, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jan-Kai Chang
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Yongjoon Yu
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Youn Kyoung Cho
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Hokyung Jang
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Ji Yoon Jeong
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Yechan Lee
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Arin Ryu
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Do Hoon Kim
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Kun Hyuck Lee
- Departments of Materials Science and Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, Chemistry, Neurological Surgery, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Simpson Querrey Institute & Feinberg Medical School, Center for Bio-Integrated Electronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Jong Yoon Lee
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Fei Liu
- Center for Mechanics and Materials, Center for Flexible Electronics Technology, AML, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Xueju Wang
- Departments of Materials Science and Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, Chemistry, Neurological Surgery, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Simpson Querrey Institute & Feinberg Medical School, Center for Bio-Integrated Electronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Qingze Huo
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Seunghwan Min
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Di Wu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- AML, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Center for Mechanics and Materials, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Bowen Ji
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Anthony Banks
- Departments of Materials Science and Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, Chemistry, Neurological Surgery, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Simpson Querrey Institute & Feinberg Medical School, Center for Bio-Integrated Electronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Jeonghyun Kim
- Department of Electronics Convergence Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 01897, Republic of Korea
| | - Nuri Oh
- Division of Materials Science and Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeong Min Jin
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Seungyong Han
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, Suwon, 443-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Daeshik Kang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, Suwon, 443-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Chi Hwan Lee
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, The Center for Implantable Devices, and Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Young Min Song
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Yihui Zhang
- Center for Mechanics and Materials, Center for Flexible Electronics Technology, AML, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yonggang Huang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Kyung-In Jang
- Department of Robotics Engineering, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology (DGIST), Daegu 42988, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding Authors: .,
| | - John A. Rogers
- Departments of Materials Science and Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, Chemistry, Neurological Surgery, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Simpson Querrey Institute & Feinberg Medical School, Center for Bio-Integrated Electronics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Corresponding Authors: .,
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