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Dasgupta A, Sun T, Palomba R, Rama E, Zhang Y, Power C, Moeckel D, Liu M, Sarode A, Weiler M, Motta A, Porte C, Magnuska Z, Said Elshafei A, Barmin R, Graham A, McClelland A, Rommel D, Stickeler E, Kiessling F, Pallares RM, De Laporte L, Decuzzi P, McDannold N, Mitragotri S, Lammers T. Nonspherical ultrasound microbubbles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2218847120. [PMID: 36940339 PMCID: PMC10068850 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2218847120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Surface tension provides microbubbles (MB) with a perfect spherical shape. Here, we demonstrate that MB can be engineered to be nonspherical, endowing them with unique features for biomedical applications. Anisotropic MB were generated via one-dimensionally stretching spherical poly(butyl cyanoacrylate) MB above their glass transition temperature. Compared to their spherical counterparts, nonspherical polymeric MB displayed superior performance in multiple ways, including i) increased margination behavior in blood vessel-like flow chambers, ii) reduced macrophage uptake in vitro, iii) prolonged circulation time in vivo, and iv) enhanced blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeation in vivo upon combination with transcranial focused ultrasound (FUS). Our studies identify shape as a design parameter in the MB landscape, and they provide a rational and robust framework for further exploring the application of anisotropic MB for ultrasound-enhanced drug delivery and imaging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anshuman Dasgupta
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA02115
| | - Tao Sun
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA02115
- Focused Ultrasound Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA02115
| | - Roberto Palomba
- Laboratory of Nanotechnology for Precision Medicine, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 16163Genova, Italy
| | - Elena Rama
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Yongzhi Zhang
- Focused Ultrasound Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA02115
| | - Chanikarn Power
- Focused Ultrasound Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA02115
| | - Diana Moeckel
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Mengjiao Liu
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Apoorva Sarode
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
| | - Marek Weiler
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Alessandro Motta
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Céline Porte
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Zuzanna Magnuska
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Asmaa Said Elshafei
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Roman Barmin
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Adam Graham
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
| | - Arthur McClelland
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
| | - Dirk Rommel
- DWI−Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Polymeric Biomaterials, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule University Aachen, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Elmar Stickeler
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Fabian Kiessling
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Roger M. Pallares
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Laura De Laporte
- DWI−Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Polymeric Biomaterials, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule University Aachen, 52074Aachen, Germany
- Advanced Materials for Biomedicine, Institute of Applied Medical Engineering, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
| | - Paolo Decuzzi
- Laboratory of Nanotechnology for Precision Medicine, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 16163Genova, Italy
| | - Nathan McDannold
- Focused Ultrasound Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA02115
| | - Samir Mitragotri
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA02138
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA02115
| | - Twan Lammers
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, Medical Faculty, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, 52074Aachen, Germany
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Microbubbles for human diagnosis and therapy. Biomaterials 2023; 294:122025. [PMID: 36716588 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2023.122025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Microbubbles (MBs) were observed for the first time in vivo as a curious consequence of quick saline injection during ultrasound (US) imaging of the aortic root, more than 50 years ago. From this serendipitous event, MBs are now widely used as contrast enhancers for US imaging. Their intrinsic properties described in this review, allow a multitude of designs, from shell to gas composition but also from grafting targeting agents to drug payload encapsulation. Indeed, the versatile MBs are deeply studied for their dual potential in imaging and therapy. As presented in this paper, new generations of MBs now opens perspectives for targeted molecular imaging along with the development of new US imaging systems. This review also presents an overview of the different therapeutic strategies with US and MBs for cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and inflammation. The overall aim is to overlap those fields in order to find similarities in the MBs application for treatment enhancement associated with US. To conclude, this review explores the new scales of MBs technologies with nanobubbles development, and along concurrent advances in the US imaging field. This review ends by discussing perspectives for the booming future uses of MBs.
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Liedtke C, Nevzorova YA, Luedde T, Zimmermann H, Kroy D, Strnad P, Berres ML, Bernhagen J, Tacke F, Nattermann J, Spengler U, Sauerbruch T, Wree A, Abdullah Z, Tolba RH, Trebicka J, Lammers T, Trautwein C, Weiskirchen R. Liver Fibrosis-From Mechanisms of Injury to Modulation of Disease. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 8:814496. [PMID: 35087852 PMCID: PMC8787129 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.814496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The Transregional Collaborative Research Center "Organ Fibrosis: From Mechanisms of Injury to Modulation of Disease" (referred to as SFB/TRR57) was funded for 13 years (2009-2021) by the German Research Council (DFG). This consortium was hosted by the Medical Schools of the RWTH Aachen University and Bonn University in Germany. The SFB/TRR57 implemented combined basic and clinical research to achieve detailed knowledge in three selected key questions: (i) What are the relevant mechanisms and signal pathways required for initiating organ fibrosis? (ii) Which immunological mechanisms and molecules contribute to organ fibrosis? and (iii) How can organ fibrosis be modulated, e.g., by interventional strategies including imaging and pharmacological approaches? In this review we will summarize the liver-related key findings of this consortium gained within the last 12 years on these three aspects of liver fibrogenesis. We will highlight the role of cell death and cell cycle pathways as well as nutritional and iron-related mechanisms for liver fibrosis initiation. Moreover, we will define and characterize the major immune cell compartments relevant for liver fibrogenesis, and finally point to potential signaling pathways and pharmacological targets that turned out to be suitable to develop novel approaches for improved therapy and diagnosis of liver fibrosis. In summary, this review will provide a comprehensive overview about the knowledge on liver fibrogenesis and its potential therapy gained by the SFB/TRR57 consortium within the last decade. The kidney-related research results obtained by the same consortium are highlighted in an article published back-to-back in Frontiers in Medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Liedtke
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Yulia A. Nevzorova
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
- Department of Immunology, Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology, School of Medicine, Complutense University Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Tom Luedde
- Medical Faculty, Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Duesseldorf, Heinrich Heine University, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Henning Zimmermann
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Daniela Kroy
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Pavel Strnad
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Marie-Luise Berres
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Jürgen Bernhagen
- Chair of Vascular Biology, Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), Klinikum der Universität München (KUM), Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU), Munich, Germany
| | - Frank Tacke
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Virchow-Klinikum and Campus Charité Mitte, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jacob Nattermann
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Ulrich Spengler
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Tilman Sauerbruch
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Alexander Wree
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Virchow-Klinikum and Campus Charité Mitte, Berlin, Germany
| | - Zeinab Abdullah
- Institute for Molecular Medicine and Experimental Immunology, University Hospital of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - René H. Tolba
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science and Experimental Surgery, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - Jonel Trebicka
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Twan Lammers
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - Christian Trautwein
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Ralf Weiskirchen
- Institute of Molecular Pathobiochemistry, Experimental Gene Therapy and Clinical Chemistry (IFMPEGKC), University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
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Pathak V, Nolte T, Rama E, Rix A, Dadfar SM, Paefgen V, Banala S, Buhl EM, Weiler M, Schulz V, Lammers T, Kiessling F. Molecular magnetic resonance imaging of Alpha-v-Beta-3 integrin expression in tumors with ultrasound microbubbles. Biomaterials 2021; 275:120896. [PMID: 34090049 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.120896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Microbubbles (MB) are used as ultrasound (US) contrast agents and can be efficiently targeted against markers of angiogenesis and inflammation. Due to their gas core, MB locally alter susceptibilities in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), but unfortunately, the resulting contrast is low and not sufficient to generate powerful molecular MRI probes. Therefore, we investigated whether a potent molecular MR agent can be generated by encapsulating superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) in the polymeric shell of poly (n-butylcyanoacrylate) (PBCA) MB and targeted them against αvβ3 integrins on the angiogenic vasculature of 4T1 murine breast carcinomas. SPION-MB consist of an air core and a multi-layered polymeric shell enabling efficient entrapment of SPION. The mean size of SPION-MB was 1.61 ± 0.32 μm. Biotin-streptavidin coupling was employed to functionalize the SPION-MB with cyclic RGDfK (Arg-Gly-Asp) and RADfK (Arg-Ala-Asp) peptides. Cells incubated with RGD-SPION-MB showed enhanced transverse relaxation rates compared with SPION-MB and blocking αvβ3 integrin receptors with excess free cRGDfK significantly reduced RGD-SPION-MB binding. Due to the fast binding of RGD-SPION-MB in vivo, dynamic susceptibility contrast MRI was employed to track their retention in tumors in real-time. Higher retention of RGD-SPION-MB was observed compared with SPION-MB and RAD-SPION-MB. To corroborate our MRI results, molecular US was performed the following day using the destruction-replenishment method. Both imaging modalities consistently indicated higher retention of RGD-SPION-MB in angiogenic vessels compared with SPION-MB and RAD-SPION-MB. Competitive blocking experiments in mice further confirmed that the binding of RGD-SPION-MB to αvβ3 integrin receptors is specific. Overall, this study demonstrates that RGD-SPION-MB can be employed as molecular MR/US contrast agents and are capable of assessing the αvβ3 integrin expression in the neovasculature of malignant tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vertika Pathak
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Teresa Nolte
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Elena Rama
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Anne Rix
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Vera Paefgen
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Srinivas Banala
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Eva Miriam Buhl
- Electron Microscope Facility, University Hospital RWTH, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Marek Weiler
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Volkmar Schulz
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Twan Lammers
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Fabian Kiessling
- Institute for Experimental Molecular Imaging, RWTH Aachen University, 52074, Aachen, Germany.
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Wang P, Kim T, Harada M, Contag C, Huang X, Smith BR. Nano-immunoimaging. NANOSCALE HORIZONS 2020; 5:628-653. [PMID: 32226975 DOI: 10.1039/c9nh00514e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Immunoimaging is a rapidly growing field stoked in large part by the intriguing triumphs of immunotherapy. On the heels of immunotherapy's successes, there exists a growing need to evaluate tumor response to therapy particularly immunotherapy, stratify patients into responders vs. non-responders, identify inflammation, and better understand the fundamental roles of immune system components to improve both immunoimaging and immunotherapy. Innovative nanomaterials have begun to provide novel opportunities for immunoimaging, in part due to their sensitivity, modularity, capacity for many potentially varied ligands (high avidity), and potential for multifunctionality/multimodality imaging. This review strives to comprehensively summarize the integration of nanotechnology and immunoimaging, and the field's potential for clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Wang
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, 775 Woodlot Drive, Room #1118, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA. and Precision Health Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA
| | - Taeho Kim
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, 775 Woodlot Drive, Room #1118, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA. and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA
| | - Masako Harada
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, 775 Woodlot Drive, Room #1118, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA. and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA
| | - Christopher Contag
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, 775 Woodlot Drive, Room #1118, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA. and Precision Health Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA and Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA
| | - Xuefei Huang
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, 775 Woodlot Drive, Room #1118, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA. and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA and Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA
| | - Bryan Ronain Smith
- Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, 775 Woodlot Drive, Room #1118, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA. and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 488824, USA and Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94306, USA
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Ergen C, Niemietz PM, Heymann F, Baues M, Gremse F, Pola R, van Bloois L, Storm G, Kiessling F, Trautwein C, Luedde T, Lammers T, Tacke F. Liver fibrosis affects the targeting properties of drug delivery systems to macrophage subsets in vivo. Biomaterials 2019; 206:49-60. [PMID: 30925288 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2019.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Myeloid immune cells promote inflammation and fibrosis in chronic liver diseases. Drug delivery systems, such as polymers, liposomes and microbubbles, efficiently target myeloid cells in healthy liver, but their targeting properties in hepatic fibrosis remain elusive. We therefore studied the biodistribution of three intravenously injected carrier material, i.e. 10 nm poly(N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide) polymers, 100 nm PEGylated liposomes and 2000 nm poly(butyl cyanoacrylate) microbubbles, in two fibrosis models in immunocompetent mice. While whole-body imaging confirmed preferential hepatic uptake even after induction of liver fibrosis, flow cytometry and immunofluorescence analysis revealed markedly decreased carrier uptake by liver macrophage subsets in fibrosis, particularly for microbubbles and polymers. Importantly, carrier uptake co-localized with immune infiltrates in fibrotic livers, corroborating the intrinsic ability of the carriers to target myeloid cells in areas of inflammation. Of the tested carrier systems liposomes had the highest uptake efficiency among hepatic myeloid cells, but the lowest specificity for cellular subsets. Hepatic fibrosis affected carrier uptake in liver and partially in spleen, but not in other tissues (blood, bone marrow, lung, kidney). In conclusion, while drug carrier systems target distinct myeloid cell populations in diseased and healthy livers, hepatic fibrosis profoundly affects their targeting efficiency, supporting the need to adapt nanomedicine-based approaches in chronic liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Can Ergen
- Department of Medicine I, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany; Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Felix Heymann
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany; Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Maike Baues
- Department of Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic and Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Felix Gremse
- Department of Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic and Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Robert Pola
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Louis van Bloois
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Gert Storm
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Fabian Kiessling
- Department of Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic and Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Tom Luedde
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Twan Lammers
- Department of Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic and Helmholtz Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany; Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Department of Targeted Therapeutics, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, Enschede, the Netherlands
| | - Frank Tacke
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany; Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
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