Nanoparticulate Delivery of Cancer Cell Membrane Elicits Multiantigenic Antitumor Immunity

Bioactive mesoporous silica materials-assisted cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is initially envisioned as a powerful approach to train immune cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME) and lymphoid tissues to elicit strong anti-tumor responses. However, clinical cancer immunotherapy still faces challenges, such as limited immunogenicity and insufficient immune response. Leveraging the advantages of mesoporous silica (MS) materials in controllable drug and immunomodulator release, recent efforts have focused on engineering MS with intrinsic immunoregulatory functions to promote robust, systemic, and safe anti-tumor responses. This review discusses advances in bioactive MS materials that address the challenges of immunotherapy. Beyond their role in on-demand delivery and drug release in response to the TME, we highlight the intrinsic functions of bioactive MS in orchestrating localized immune responses by inducing immunogenic cell death in tumor cells, modulating immune cell activity, and facilitating tumor-immune cell interactions. Additionally, we emphasize the advantages of bioactive MS in recruiting and activating immune cells within lymphoid tissues to initiate anti-tumor vaccination. The review also covers the challenges of MS-assisted immunotherapy, potential solutions, and future outlooks. With a deeper understanding of material-bio interactions, the rational design of MS with sophisticated bioactivities and controllable responsiveness holds great promise for enhancing the outcomes of personalized immunotherapy.

Tumor Vaccine Exploiting Membranes with Influenza Virus-Induced Immunogenic Cell Death to Decorate Polylactic Coglycolic Acid Nanoparticles

Immunogenic cell death (ICD) of tumor cells, which is characterized by releasing immunostimulatory "find me" and "eat me" signals, expressing proinflammatory cytokines and providing personalized and broad-spectrum tumor antigens draws increasing attention in developing a tumor vaccine. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether the influenza virus (IAV) is efficient enough to induce ICD in tumor cells and an extra modification of IAV components such as hemeagglutinin (HA) will be helpful for the ICD-induced cells to elicit robust antitumor effects; in addition, to evaluate whether the membrane-engineering polylactic coglycolic acid nanoparticles (PLGA NPs) simulating ICD immune stimulation mechanisms hold the potential to be a promising vaccine candidate, a mouse melanoma cell line (B16-F10 cell) was infected with IAV rescued by the reverse genetic system, and the prepared cells and membrane-modified PLGA NPs were used separately to immunize the melanoma-bearing mice. IAV-infected tumor cells exhibit dying status, releasing high mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and exposing calreticulin (CRT), IAV hemeagglutinin (HA), and tumor antigens like tyrosinase-related protein 2 (TRP2). IAV-induced ICD cells enhance biomass-derived carbon (BMDCs) migration, antigen uptake, cross-presentation, and maturation in vitro. Furthermore, immunization with IAV-induced ICD cells effectively suppressed tumor growth in melanoma-bearing mice. The isolated cell membrane inherited the immunological characteristics from the ICD cells and elicited robust antitumor immune responses through decorating PLGA NPs loading with a tumor-specific helper T-cell peptide and supplemented with ATP in a hydrogel system. This study indicated a promising strategy for developing cell-based and personalized tumor vaccines through fully taking advantage of the immune stimulation mechanisms of ICD occurrence in tumor cells, IAV modification, and nanoscale delivery.

The micro(nano)plastics perspective: exploring cancer development and therapy

Microplastics, as an emerging environmental pollutant, have received widespread attention for their potential impact on ecosystems and human health. Microplastics are defined as plastic particles less than 5 millimeters in diameter and can be categorized as primary and secondary microplastics. Primary microplastics usually originate directly from industrial production, while secondary microplastics are formed by the degradation of larger plastic items. Microplastics are capable of triggering cytotoxicity and chronic inflammation, and may promote cancer through mechanisms such as pro-inflammatory responses, oxidative stress and endocrine disruption. In addition, improved microplastics bring new perspectives to cancer therapy, and studies of microplastics as drug carriers are underway, showing potential for high targeting and bioavailability. Although current studies suggest an association between microplastics and certain cancers (e.g., lung, liver, and breast cancers), the long-term effects and specific mechanisms still need to be studied. This review aimed at exploring the carcinogenicity of microplastics and their promising applications in cancer therapy provides important directions for future research and emphasizes the need for multidisciplinary collaboration to address this global health challenge.

Injectable and Degradable Zwitterionic Cryogels as Cancer Vaccine Platforms to Prevent Cancer Recurrence after Surgery

Cancer has become a highly prevalent disease and poses serious threats to human health. Conventional cancer treatments still face high risks of recurrence. Training the immune system to recognize and eliminate tumors via external stimulation, such as vaccines, emerges as a promising approach for cancer prevention and treatment. However, injectable vaccines may have limited immune activation, causing difficulties in maintaining long-term immune surveillance of tumorigenesis by tumor-specific cytotoxic T cells. Here, degradable zwitterionic cryogels were prepared using the cryogelation technique. The cryogenic preparation maintained the biological activities of tumor antigens and immune adjuvants loaded in the cryogels. The macroporous structure endowed the injectability of cryogels into the body via conventional syringes. In the presence of proteases, the cryogels degraded, allowing sustained release of antigens and adjuvants, ensuring continued dendritic cell (DC) recruitment and antigen presentation to maturing tumor-specific cytotoxic T cells. In vivo experiments demonstrated that the cryogel cancer vaccines elicited robust immune activation and effectively modulated tumor microenvironments. The combination with photothermal therapy significantly inhibited tumor growth, showing great potential for preventing postoperative recurrence. Additionally, the zwitterionic cryogels were biocompatible without obvious toxicities during degradation. The cryogels could serve as effective vaccine platforms to prevent cancer recurrence after surgery.

Biomimetic Cell Membrane Layers for the Detection of Insulin and Glucagon

The growing need for reliable and rapid insulin testing to enhance glycemic management has spurred intensive exploration of new insulin-binding bioreceptors and innovative biosensing platforms for detecting this hormone, along with glucagon, in biological samples. Here, by leveraging the native protein receptors on the HepG2 cell membrane, we construct a simple and chemical-free biomimetic molecular recognition layer for the detection of insulin and glucagon. Unlike traditional affinity sensors, which require lengthy surface modifications on the electrochemical transducers and use of two different capture antibodies to recognize each analyte, this new biomimetic sensing strategy employs a simple drop-casting of a natural cell membrane recognition layer onto the electrochemical transducer. This approach allows for the concurrent capture and detection of both insulin and glucagon. We investigate the presence of insulin and glucagon receptors on the HepG2 cell membrane and demonstrate its multiplexing bioelectronic sensing capabilities through the binding of the captured insulin and glucagon to enzyme-tagged signaling antibodies. This new molecular recognition layer offers highly sensitive simultaneous detection of insulin and glucagon under decentralized conditions, holding considerable promise for the management of diabetes and the development of diverse biomimetic diagnostic platforms.

Recent advances in cell membrane-coated porphyrin-based nanoscale MOFs for enhanced photodynamic therapy

Porphyrins-based nanoscale metal-organic frameworks (nMOFs) has been widely utilized to kills tumor cells by generating cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, porphyrin based nMOFs (por-nMOFs) still face challenges such as rapid immune clearance and weak tumor targeting. Researchers have discovered that using a top-down biomimetic strategy, where nMOFs are coated with cell membranes, can promote long blood circulation, evade the reticuloendothelial system, and improve cancer cell targeting, thereby significantly enhancing the photodynamic therapy (PDT) effect of nMOFs. This review summarizes the recent work on different cell membranes-coated por-nMOFs for enhanced tumor PDT. This review details the changes in physicochemical properties, enhanced homotypic cancer cell-selective endocytosis, improved tumor tissue targeting, and increased cytotoxicity and effective in vivo tumor suppression after the nMOFs are wrapped with cell membranes. Additionally, this review compares the biological functions of various types of cell membranes, including cancer cell membranes, red blood cell membranes, aptamer-modified red blood cell membranes, and hybrid membranes from the fusion of cancer and immune cells. The review highlights the enhanced immunogenic cell death function when using hybrid membranes derived from the fusion of cancer and immune cell membranes. By summarizing the augmented PDT effects and the combined antitumor outcomes with other therapeutic modalities, this review aims to provide new insights into the biomedical applications of por-nMOFs and offer more references for the preclinical application of porphyrin-based photosensitizers.

Invasive metastatic tumor-camouflaged ROS responsive nanosystem for targeting therapeutic brain injury after cardiac arrest

Drug transmission through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is considered an arduous challenge for brain injury treatment following the return of spontaneous circulation after cardiac arrest (CA-ROSC). Inspired by the propensity of melanoma metastasis to the brain, B16F10 cell membranes are camouflaged on 2-methoxyestradiol (2ME2)-loaded reactive oxygen species (ROS)-triggered "Padlock" nanoparticles that are constructed by phenylboronic acid pinacol esters conjugated D-a-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS-PBAP). The biomimetic nanoparticles (BM@TP/2ME2) can be internalized, mainly mediated by the mutual recognition and interaction between CD44v6 expressed on B16F10 cell membranes and hyaluronic acid on cerebral vascular endothelial cells, and they responsively release 2ME2 by the oxidative stress microenvironment. Notably, BM@TP/2ME2 can scavenge excessive ROS to reestablish redox balance, reverse neuroinflammation, and restore autophagic flux in damaged neurons, eventually exerting a remarkable neuroprotective effect after CA-ROSC in vitro and in vivo. This biomimetic drug delivery system is a novel and promising strategy for the treatment of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury after CA-ROSC.

Tumor cell membrane-based vaccines: A potential boost for cancer immunotherapy

Because therapeutic cancer vaccines can, in theory, eliminate tumor cells specifically with relatively low toxicity, they have long been considered for application in repressing cancer progression. Traditional cancer vaccines containing a single or a few discrete tumor epitopes have failed in the clinic, possibly due to challenges in epitope selection, target downregulation, cancer cell heterogeneity, tumor microenvironment immunosuppression, or a lack of vaccine immunogenicity. Whole cancer cell or cancer membrane vaccines, which provide a rich source of antigens, are emerging as viable alternatives. Autologous and allogenic cellular cancer vaccines have been evaluated as clinical treatments. Tumor cell membranes (TCMs) are an intriguing antigen source, as they provide membrane-accessible targets and, at the same time, serve as integrated carriers of vaccine adjuvants and other therapeutic agents. This review provides a summary of the properties and technologies for TCM cancer vaccines. Characteristics, categories, mechanisms, and preparation methods are discussed, as are the demonstrable additional benefits derived from combining TCM vaccines with chemotherapy, sonodynamic therapy, phototherapy, and oncolytic viruses. Further research in chemistry, biomedicine, cancer immunology, and bioinformatics to address current drawbacks could facilitate the clinical adoption of TCM vaccines.

The Evolution of Microfluidic-Based Drug-Loading Techniques for Cells and Their Derivatives

Conventional drug delivery techniques face challenges related to targeting and adverse reactions. Recent years have witnessed significant advancements in nanoparticle-based drug carriers. Nevertheless, concerns persist regarding their safety and insufficient metabolism. Employing cells and their derivatives, such as cell membranes and extracellular vesicles (EVs), as drug carriers effectively addresses the challenges associated with nanoparticle carriers. However, an essential hurdle remains in efficiently loading drugs into these carriers. With the advancement of microfluidic technology and its advantages in precise manipulation at the micro- and nanoscales, as well as minimal sample loss, it has found extensive application in the loading of drugs using cells and their derivatives, thereby fostering the development of drug-loading techniques. This paper outlines the characteristics and benefits of utilizing cells and their derivatives as drug carriers and provides an overview of current drug-loading techniques, particularly those rooted in microfluidic technology. The significant potential for microfluidic technology in targeted disease therapy through drug delivery systems employing cells and their derivatives, is foreseen.

Dendritic cell-based biomimetic nanoparticles for foot-and-mouth disease induce robust cellular immunity

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious and economically devastating viral disease of ruminants and swine, badly affecting the livestock industry worldwide. In clinical practice, vaccination is a frequently employed strategy to prevent foot-and-mouth disease (FMDV). However, commercial inactivated vaccines for FMD mainly rely on humoral immunity, exhibiting poor cellular immune responses and causing adverse reactions. Here, we use the double emulsion method to prepare poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA-NP) encapsulated with IL-2 cytokines, wrap the dendritic cell (DC) membrane carrying FMDV antigen information on the surface of the nanoparticles, obtaining a biomimetic nanoparticle vaccine Biom@DC with uniform size. This vaccine can effortlessly move through lymph nodes due to its nanoscale size advantage. It also possesses DC ability to present antigens, and antigen presentation can be made more effective with high biocompatibility. The sustained release of IL-2 encapsulated in the core of PLGA-NP in vivo can effectively promote the body's cellular immune response. Immune tests on mice have shown that Biom@DC may greatly increase T cell activation and proliferation both in vivo and in vitro, while also significantly reducing the fraction of inhibitory Treg cells. Furthermore, in the micro serum neutralization assay for FMDV, it has been demonstrated that the group vaccinated with Biom@DC exhibits a clear neutralizing effect. Given its strong immunogenicity, Biom@DC has the potential to develop into a novel, potent anti-FMDV vaccination.

A biomimetic targeted nanosystem delivering synergistic inhibitors for glioblastoma immune microenvironment reprogramming and treatment

Efficient drug delivery across the blood-brain barrier is imperative for treating glioblastoma (GBM). This study utilized the GBM cell membrane to construct a biomimetic targeted nanosystem (GMNPs@AMD/RAPA) that hierarchically releases the CXCR4 antagonist AMD3100 and the mTOR pathway inhibitor rapamycin (RAPA) for reprogramming the tumor immune microenvironment and suppressing the progression of GBM. By initially inhibiting the CXCL12/CXCR4 axis, the tumor microenvironment (TME) was reprogrammed to enhance the infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) into the TME while suppressing tumor cell survival, proliferation, and angiogenesis. Subsequently, through further cellular uptake and degradation of the nanoparticles, the mTOR pathway inhibitor RAPA was released, further suppressing the tumor progression. This study successfully combined chemotherapy and immunotherapy, achieving effective synergistic therapeutic effects, and suppressing the progression of GBM.

Cell Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles for Dental, Oral, and Craniofacial Diseases

Dental, oral, and craniofacial diseases can substantially impact the quality of human life, thereby posing a serious public health concern. Although conventional therapies such as surgery have solved these problems largely, the prognosis of patients is not always satisfactory. Cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMCNPs) carry nanodrugs with the help of natural cell membranes, therefore utilizing their remarkable ability to interface and interact with their surrounding environment. These nanoparticles have demonstrated substantial advantages in drug targeting, prolonging blood circulation time, penetrating biofilms, and immune escape. With the assistance of CMCNPs, the therapeutic effects of dental, oral, and craniofacial diseases can reach a higher level. CMCNPs have been applied for dental, oral, and craniofacial diseases for various conditions such as head and neck cancer, periodontal disease, and oral biosignal detection. For the therapies of head and neck cancer, CMCNPs have been widely utilized as a tool of chemotherapy, phototherapy, and immunotherapy, while yet to be exploited in imaging technique. In the end, we summarized the challenges and prospectives of CMCNPs for dental, oral, and craniofacial diseases: large-scale production with uniform standards and high quantity, extensive application directions in dental, oral, and craniofacial regions (implant, endodontics), and the promotion of its clinical application.

Biomimetic nanomedicine cocktail enables selective cell targeting to enhance ovarian Cancer chemo- and immunotherapy

Ovarian cancer is one of the deadliest cancers, and combined chemo- and immunotherapies are potential strategies to combat it. However, the anti-cancer efficacy of the combined therapies may be limited by the non-selective co-delivery of chemotherapy and immunotherapy. Herein, a combined chemo- and immunotherapy is designed to selectively target ovarian tumor (ID8) cells and dendritic cells (DCs) using ID8 cell membrane (IM) and bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), respectively. Doxorubicin (DOX) and Ovalbumin (OVA) peptide (OVA257-264) are chosen as model chemotherapy and immunotherapy agents, respectively. A DNA nanocube capable of easily loading DOX or OVA257-264 is chosen as the carrier. Firstly, the DNA nanocube is used to load DOX or OVA257-264 to prepare cube-DOX or cube-OVA. This nanocube was then encapsulated with IM to form IM@Cube-DOX and with OMV to form OMV@Cube-OVA. IM@Cube-DOX can be selectively taken up by ID8 cells, leading to effective cell killing, while OMV@Cube-OVA targets and activates DC2.4 cells in vitro. Both IM@Cube-DOX and OMV@Cube-OVA show increased accumulation at ID8 tumors in C57BL/6 mice. Combined IM@Cube-DOX + OMV@Cube-OVA therapy demonstrates better anti-tumor efficacy than non-selective delivery methods such as OMV@(Cube-DOX + Cube-OVA) or IM@(Cube-DOX + Cube-OVA) in ID8-OVA tumor-bearing mice. In conclusion, this study demonstrates a biomimetic delivery strategy that enables selective drug delivery to tumor cells and DCs, thereby enhancing the anti-tumor efficacy of combined chemo- and immunotherapy through the selective delivery strategy.

Polyester nanoparticles delivering chemotherapeutics: Learning from the past and looking to the future to enhance their clinical impact in tumor therapy

Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), specifically those comprised of biodegradable and biocompatible polyesters, have been heralded as a game-changing drug delivery platform. In fact, poly(α-hydroxy acids) such as polylactide (PLA), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), and poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) have been heavily researched in the past three decades as the material basis of polymeric NPs for drug delivery applications. As materials, these polymers have found success in resorbable sutures, biodegradable implants, and even monolithic, biodegradable platforms for sustained release of therapeutics (e.g., proteins and small molecules) and diagnostics. Few fields have gained more attention in drug delivery through polymeric NPs than cancer therapy. However, the clinical translational of polymeric nanomedicines for treating solid tumors has not been congruent with the fervor or funding in this particular field of research. Here, we attempt to provide a comprehensive snapshot of polyester NPs in the context of chemotherapeutic delivery. This includes a preliminary exploration of the polymeric nanomedicine in the cancer research space. We examine the various processes for producing polyester NPs, including methods for surface-functionalization, and related challenges. After a detailed overview of the multiple factors involved with the delivery of NPs to solid tumors, the crosstalk between particle design and interactions with biological systems is discussed. Finally, we report state-of-the-art approaches toward effective delivery of NPs to tumors, aiming at identifying new research areas and re-evaluating the reasons why some research avenues have underdelivered. We hope our effort will contribute to a better understanding of the gap to fill and delineate the future research work needed to bring polyester-based NPs closer to clinical application. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Hybrid Cellular Nanovesicles Block PD-L1 Signal and Repolarize M2 Macrophages for Cancer Immunotherapy

The PD1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint blocking is a promising therapy, while immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) and poor tumor penetration of therapeutic antibodies limit its efficacy. Repolarization of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) offers a potential method to ameliorate immunosuppression of TME and further boost T cell antitumor immunity. Herein, hybrid cell membrane biomimetic nanovesicles (hNVs) are developed by fusing M1 macrophage-derived nanovesicles (M1-NVs) and PD1-overexpressed tumor cell-derived nanovesicles (PD1-NVs) to improve cancer immunotherapy. The M1-NVs promote the transformation of M2-like TAMs to M1-like phenotype and further increase the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, resulting in improved immunosuppressive TME. Concurrently, the PD1-NVs block PD1/PD-L1 pathway, which boosts cancer immunotherapy when combined with M1-NVs. In a breast cancer mouse model, the hNVs efficiently accumulate at the tumor site after intravenous injection and significantly inhibit the tumor growth. Mechanically, the M1 macrophages and CD8+ T lymphocytes in TME increase by twofold after the treatment, indicating effective immune activation. These results suggest the hNVs as a promising strategy to integrate TME improvement with PD1/PD-L1 blockade for cancer immunotherapy.

Biomimetic Nucleic Acid Drug Delivery Systems for Relieving Tumor Immunosuppressive Microenvironment

Immunotherapy combats tumors by enhancing the body's immune surveillance and clearance of tumor cells. Various nucleic acid drugs can be used in immunotherapy, such as DNA expressing cytokines, mRNA tumor vaccines, small interfering RNAs (siRNA) knocking down immunosuppressive molecules, and oligonucleotides that can be used as immune adjuvants. Nucleic acid drugs, which are prone to nuclease degradation in the circulation and find it difficult to enter the target cells, typically necessitate developing appropriate vectors for effective in vivo delivery. Biomimetic drug delivery systems, derived from viruses, bacteria, and cells, can protect the cargos from degradation and clearance, and deliver them to the target cells to ensure safety. Moreover, they can activate the immune system through their endogenous activities and active components, thereby improving the efficacy of antitumor immunotherapeutic nucleic acid drugs. In this review, biomimetic nucleic acid delivery systems for relieving a tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment are introduced. Their immune activation mechanisms, including upregulating the proinflammatory cytokines, serving as tumor vaccines, inhibiting immune checkpoints, and modulating intratumoral immune cells, are elaborated. The advantages and disadvantages, as well as possible directions for their clinical translation, are summarized at last.

Current status and future directions of nanovaccine for cancer: a bibliometric analysis during 2004-2023

Background

Nanovaccine treatment is an exciting area of research in immunology and personalized medicine, holding great promise for enhancing immune responses and targeting specific diseases. Their small size allows efficient uptake by immune cells, leading to robust immune activation. They can incorporate immune-stimulating molecules to boost vaccine efficacy. Therefore, nanovaccine can be personalized to target tumor-specific antigens, activating the immune system against cancer cells. Currently, there have been ample evidence showing the effectiveness and potential of nanovaccine as a treatment for cancer. However, there was rare bibliometric analysis of nanovaccine for cancer. Here we performed a bibliometric and visual analysis of published studies related to nanovaccine treatment for cancer, providing the trend of future development of nanovaccine.

Methods

We collected the literatures based on the Web of Science Core Collection SCI-Expanded database. The bibliometric analysis was performed via utilizing visualization analysis tools VOSviewer, Co-Occurrence (COOC), Citespace, Bibliometrix (R-Tool of R-Studio), and HitCite.

Results

A total of 517 literatures were included in this study. China is the country with the most publications and the highest total local citation score (TLCS). The Chinese Academy of Sciences holds the largest research count in this field and the most prolific author is Deling Kong from Nankai University. The most prominent journal for publishing in this area is Biomaterials. The researches mainly focus on the therapeutic process of tumor nanovaccines, the particle composition and the application of nanovaccines, suggesting the potential hotspots and trends of nanovaccine.

Conclusion

In this study, we summarized the characteristics and variation trends of publications involved in nanovaccine, and categorized the most influential countries, institutions, authors, journals, hotspots and trends regarding the nanovaccine for cancer. With the continuous development of nanomaterials and tumor immunotherapy, nanovaccine for cancer provides a research field of significant clinical value and potential application.

Components, Formulations, Deliveries, and Combinations of Tumor Vaccines

Tumor vaccines, an important part of immunotherapy, prevent cancer or kill existing tumor cells by activating or restoring the body's own immune system. Currently, various formulations of tumor vaccines have been developed, including cell vaccines, tumor cell membrane vaccines, tumor DNA vaccines, tumor mRNA vaccines, tumor polypeptide vaccines, virus-vectored tumor vaccines, and tumor-in-situ vaccines. There are also multiple delivery systems for tumor vaccines, such as liposomes, cell membrane vesicles, viruses, exosomes, and emulsions. In addition, to decrease the risk of tumor immune escape and immune tolerance that may exist with a single tumor vaccine, combination therapy of tumor vaccines with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors, cytokines, CAR-T therapy, or photoimmunotherapy is an effective strategy. Given the critical role of tumor vaccines in immunotherapy, here, we look back to the history of tumor vaccines, and we discuss the antigens, adjuvants, formulations, delivery systems, mechanisms, combination therapy, and future directions of tumor vaccines.

Unlocking the power of nanomedicine: Cell membrane-derived biomimetic cancer nanovaccines for cancer treatment

Over the past decades, nanomedicine researchers have dedicated their efforts to developing nanoscale platforms capable of more precisely delivering drug payloads to attack tumors. Cancer nanovaccines are exhibiting a distinctive capability in inducing tumor-specific antitumor responses. Nevertheless, there remain numerous challenges that must be addressed for cancer nanovaccines to evoke sufficient therapeutic effects. Cell membrane-derived nanovaccines are an emerging class of cancer vaccines that comprise a synthetic nanoscale core camouflaged by naturally derived cell membranes. The specific cell membrane has a biomimetic nanoformulation with several distinctive abilities, such as immune evasion, enhanced biocompatibility, and tumor targeting, typically associated with a source cell. Here, we discuss the advancements of cell membrane-derived nanovaccines and how these vaccines are used for cancer therapeutics. Translational endeavors are currently in progress, and additional research is also necessary to effectively address crucial areas of demand, thereby facilitating the future successful translation of these emerging vaccine platforms.

Hybrid Cell Membrane-Based Nanoplatforms for Enhanced Immunotherapy against Cancer and Infectious Diseases

Immunotherapy based on nanoplatforms is a promising approach to treat cancer and infectious diseases, and it has achieved considerable progress in clinical practices. Cell membrane-based nanoplatforms endow nanoparticles with versatile characteristics, such as half-life extension, targeting ability, and immune-system regulation. However, monotypic cell membrane usually fails to provoke strong immune response for immunotherapy while maintaining good biosafety. The integration of different cell-membrane types provides a promising approach to construct multifunctional nanoplatforms for improved immunotherapeutic efficacy by enhancing immunogenicity or targeting function, evading immune clearance, or combining with other therapeutic modalities. In this review, the design principles, preparation strategies, and applications of hybrid cell membrane-based nanoplatforms for cancer and infection immunotherapy are first discussed. Furthermore, the challenges and prospects for the potential clinical translation of hybrid cell membrane-based nanoplatforms are discussed.

Engineering Microorganisms for Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy presents a promising approach to fight against cancer by utilizing the immune system. Recently, engineered microorganisms have emerged as a potential strategy in cancer immunotherapy. These microorganisms, including bacteria and viruses, can be designed and modified using synthetic biology and genetic engineering techniques to target cancer cells and modulate the immune system. This review delves into various microorganism-based therapies for cancer immunotherapy, encompassing strategies for enhancing efficacy while ensuring safety and ethical considerations. The development of these therapies holds immense potential in offering innovative personalized treatments for cancer.

Biomimetic ZIF-8 Nanoparticles: A Novel Approach for Biomimetic Drug Delivery Systems

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous materials resulting from the coordination of metal clusters or ions with organic ligands, merging macromolecular and coordination chemistry features. Among these, zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) stands out as a widely utilized MOF known for its robust stability in aqueous environments owing to the robust interaction between its constituent zinc ions (Zn2+) and 2-methylimidazole (2-MIM). ZIF-8 readily decomposes under acidic conditions, serving as a promising candidate for pH-responsive drug delivery systems. Moreover, biomimetic materials typically possess good biocompatibility, reducing immune reactions. By mimicking natural structures or surface features within the body, they enhance the targeting of nanoparticles, prolong their circulation time, and increase their bioavailability in vivo. This review explores the latest advancements in biomimetic ZIF-8 nanoparticles for drug delivery, elucidating the primary obstacles and future prospects in utilizing ZIF-8 for drug delivery applications.

Biomimetic Nanoplatform for Dual-Targeted Clearance of Activated and Senescent Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts to Improve Radiation Resistance in Breast Cancer

Radiation resistance in breast cancer resulting in residual lesions or recurrence is a significant cause to radiotherapy failure. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and radiotherapy-induced senescent CAFs can further lead to radiation resistance and tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment. Here, an engineering cancer-cell-biomimetic nanoplatform is constructed for dual-targeted clearance of CAFs as well as senescent CAFs. The nanoplatform is prepared by 4T1 cell membrane vesicles chimerized with FAP single-chain fragment variable as the biomimetic shell for targeting of CAFs and senescent CAFs, and PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) co-encapsulated with nintedanib and ABT-263 as the core for clearance of CAFs and senescent CAFs, which are noted as FAP-CAR-CM@PLGA-AB NPs. It is evidenced that FAP-CAR-CM@PLGA-AB NPs directly suppressed the tumor-promoting effect of senescent CAFs. It also exhibits prolonged blood circulation and enhanced tumor accumulation, dual-cleared CAFs and senescent CAFs, improved radiation resistance in both acquired and patient-derived radioresistant tumor cells, and effective antitumor effect with the tumor suppression rate of 86.7%. In addition, FAP-CAR-CM@PLGA-AB NPs reverse the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment and enhance systemic antitumor immunity. The biomimetic system for dual-targeted clearance of CAFs and senescent CAFs provides a potential strategy for enhancing the radio-sensitization of breast cancer.

Recent Advances in Material Technology for Leukemia Treatments

Leukemia is a widespread hematological malignancy characterized by an elevated white blood cell count in both the blood and the bone marrow. Despite notable advancements in leukemia intervention in the clinic, a large proportion of patients, especially acute leukemia patients, fail to achieve long-term remission or complete remission following treatment. Therefore, leukemia therapy necessitates optimization to meet the treatment requirements. In recent years, a multitude of materials have undergone rigorous study to serve as delivery vectors or direct intervention agents to bolster the effectiveness of leukemia therapy. These materials include liposomes, protein-based materials, polymeric materials, cell-derived materials, and inorganic materials. They possess unique characteristics and are applied in a broad array of therapeutic modalities, including chemotherapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy, radiotherapy, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, and other evolving treatments. Here, an overview of these materials is presented, describing their physicochemical properties, their role in leukemia treatment, and the challenges they face in the context of clinical translation. This review inspires researchers to further develop various materials that can be used to augment the efficacy of multiple therapeutic modalities for novel applications in leukemia treatment.

Cell-membrane engineering strategies for clinic-guided design of nanomedicine

Cells are the fundamental units of life. The cell membrane primarily composed of two layers of phospholipids (a bilayer) structurally defines the boundary of a cell, which can protect its interior from external disturbances and also selectively exchange substances and conduct signals from the extracellular environment. The complexity and particularity of transmembrane proteins provide the foundation for versatile cellular functions. Nanomedicine as an emerging therapeutic strategy holds tremendous potential in the healthcare field. However, it is susceptible to recognition and clearance by the immune system. To overcome this bottleneck, the technology of cell membrane coating has been extensively used in nanomedicines for their enhanced therapeutic efficacy, attributed to the favorable fluidity and biocompatibility of cell membranes with various membrane-anchored proteins. Meanwhile, some engineering strategies of cell membranes through various chemical, physical and biological ways have been progressively developed to enable their versatile therapeutic functions against complex diseases. In this review, we summarized the potential clinical applications of four typical cell membranes, elucidated their underlying therapeutic mechanisms, and outlined their current engineering approaches. In addition, we further discussed the limitation of this technology of cell membrane coating in clinical applications, and possible solutions to address these challenges.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Synergistic Chemoimmunotherapy for Cancer Treatment

Until now, there has been a lack of effective strategies for cancer treatment. Immunotherapy has high potential in treating several cancers but its efficacy is limited as a monotherapy. Chemoimmunotherapy (CIT) holds promise to be widely used in cancer treatment. Therefore, identifying their involvement and potential synergy in CIT approaches is decisive. Nano-based drug delivery systems (NDDSs) are ideal delivery systems because they can simultaneously target immune cells and cancer cells, promoting drug accumulation, and reducing the toxicity of the drug. In this review, we first introduce five current immunotherapies, including immune checkpoint blocking (ICB), adoptive cell transfer therapy (ACT), cancer vaccines, oncolytic virus therapy (OVT) and cytokine therapy. Subsequently, the immunomodulatory effects of chemotherapy by inducing immunogenic cell death (ICD), promoting tumor killer cell infiltration, down-regulating immunosuppressive cells, and inhibiting immune checkpoints have been described. Finally, the NDDSs-mediated collaborative drug delivery systems have been introduced in detail, and the development of NDDSs-mediated CIT nanoparticles has been prospected.

Lipids Extracted from Mycobacterial Membrane and Enveloped PLGA Nanoparticles for Encapsulating Antibacterial Drugs Elicit Synergistic Antimicrobial Response against Mycobacteria

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic disease caused byMycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), which shows a long treatment cycle often leads to drug resistance, making treatment more difficult. Immunogens present in the pathogen's cell membrane can stimulate endogenous immune responses. Therefore, an effective lipid-based vaccine or drug delivery vehicle formulated from the pathogen's cell membrane can improve treatment outcomes. Herein, we extracted and characterized lipids fromMycobacterium smegmatis, and the extracts contained lipids belonging to numerous lipid classes and compounds typically found associated with mycobacteria. The extracted lipids were used to formulate biomimetic lipid reconstituted nanoparticles (LrNs) and LrNs-coated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA-LrNs). Physiochemical characterization and results of morphology suggested that PLGA-LrNs exhibited enhanced stability compared with LrNs. And both of these two types of nanoparticles inhibited the growth of M. smegmatis. After loading different drugs, PLGA-LrNs containing berberine or coptisine strongly and synergistically prevented the growth of M. smegmatis. Altogether, the bacterial membrane lipids we extracted with antibacterial activity can be used as nanocarrier coating for synergistic antibacterial treatment of M. smegmatis─an alternative model of Mtb, which is expected as a novel therapeutic system for TB treatment.

Exploring nanocarriers as innovative materials for advanced drug delivery strategies in onco-immunotherapies

In recent years, Onco-immunotherapies (OIMTs) have been shown to be a potential therapy option for cancer. Several immunotherapies have received regulatory approval, while many others are now undergoing clinical testing or are in the early stages of development. Despite this progress, a large number of challenges to the broad use of immunotherapies to treat cancer persists. To make immunotherapy more useful as a treatment while reducing its potentially harmful side effects, we need to know more about how to improve response rates to different types of immunotherapies. Nanocarriers (NCs) have the potential to harness immunotherapies efficiently, enhance the efficiency of these treatments, and reduce the severe adverse reactions that are associated with them. This article discusses the necessity to incorporate nanomedicines in OIMTs and the challenges we confront with current anti-OIMT approaches. In addition, it examines the most important considerations for building nanomedicines for OIMT, which may improve upon current immunotherapy methods. Finally, it highlights the applications and future scenarios of using nanotechnology.

Genetically Engineered Cytomembrane Nanovaccines for Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer nanovaccines have attracted widespread attention by inducing potent cytotoxic T cell responses to improve immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy, while the lack of co-stimulatory molecules limits their clinical applications. Here, a genetically engineered cancer cytomembrane nanovaccine is reported that simultaneously overexpresses co-stimulatory molecule CD40L and immune checkpoint inhibitor PD1 to elicit robust antitumor immunity for cancer immunotherapy. The CD40L and tumor antigens inherited from cancer cytomembranes effectively stimulate dendritic cell (DC)-mediated immune activation of cytotoxic T cells, while the PD1 on cancer cytomembranes significantly blocks PD1/PD-L1 signaling pathway, synergistically stimulating antitumor immune responses. Benefiting from the targeting ability of cancer cytomembranes, this nanovaccines formula shows an enhanced lymph node trafficking and retention. Compared with original cancer cytomembranes, this genetically engineered nanovaccine induces twofold DC maturation and shows satisfactory precaution efficacy in a breast tumor mouse model. This genetically engineered cytomembrane nanovaccine offers a simple, safe, and robust strategy by incorporating cytomembrane components and co-stimulatory molecules for enhanced cancer immunotherapy.

Branched glycopolymer prodrug-derived nanoassembly combined with a STING agonist activates an immuno-supportive status to boost anti-PD-L1 antibody therapy

Despite the great potential of anti-PD-L1 antibodies for immunotherapy, their low response rate due to an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment has hampered their application. To address this issue, we constructed a cell membrane-coated nanosystem (mB4S) to reverse an immunosuppressive microenvironment to an immuno-supportive one for strengthening the anti-tumor effect. In this system, Epirubicin (EPI) as an immunogenic cell death (ICD) inducer was coupled to a branched glycopolymer via hydrazone bonds and diABZI as a stimulator of interferon genes (STING) agonist was encapsulated into mB4S. After internalization of mB4S, EPI was acidic-responsively released to induce ICD, which was characterized by an increased level of calreticulin (CRT) exposure and enhanced ATP secretion. Meanwhile, diABZI effectively activated the STING pathway. Treatment with mB4S in combination with an anti-PD-L1 antibody elicited potent immune responses by increasing the ratio of matured dendritic cells (DCs) and CD8+ T cells, promoting cytokines secretion, up-regulating M1-like tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and down-regulating immunosuppressive myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Therefore, this nanosystem for co-delivery of an ICD inducer and a STING agonist achieved promotion of DCs maturation and CD8+ T cells infiltration, creating an immuno-supportive microenvironment, thus potentiating the therapy effect of the anti-PD-L1 antibody in both 4T1 breast and CT26 colon tumor mice.

The Intellectual Landscape of Nanovaccines: A Bibliometric Perspective on Scientific Progress and Future Directions

This bibliometric study provides a comprehensive analysis of the burgeoning field of nanovaccine research, leveraging data sourced from Scopus and employing the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flowchart for the meticulous screening, inclusion, and exclusion of relevant studies. Utilizing sophisticated bibliometric tools, such as Biblioshiny and CiteSpace, we dissected the expansive literature to unearth critical insights into the annual scientific output, identifying key contributors and pivotal publications that have shaped the domain. The analysis delineates the most influential authors, sources, and globally cited documents, offering a macroscopic view of the field's intellectual structure and growth trajectory. Trend topics and thematic mapping underscored the evolution of research foci, from fundamental immunological mechanisms to cutting-edge nanomaterial applications. Factorial analysis and keyword co-occurrence networks revealed the intricate associations and thematic concentrations within the literature. The study's robust methodology also pinpointed the keywords exhibiting the strongest citation bursts, signifying emergent areas of intense academic interest. Networks of cited authors illuminated collaborative patterns among scholars, while timeline network visualizations of country collaborations depicted the global interplay in nanovaccine development. Crucially, this study identified notable research gaps and practical implications, suggesting directions for future investigation and highlighting the translational potential of nanovaccines in public health and personalized medicine. This bibliometric investigation not only maps the current landscape but also charts a course for the trajectory of nanovaccine research, emphasizing its role as a cornerstone of innovative immunotherapeutic strategies.

Emerging nanoparticle platforms for CpG oligonucleotide delivery

Unmethylated cytosine-phosphate-guanine (CpG) oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs), which were therapeutic DNA with high immunostimulatory activity, have been applied in widespread applications from basic research to clinics as therapeutic agents for cancer immunotherapy, viral infection, allergic diseases and asthma since their discovery in 1995. The major factors to consider for clinical translation using CpG motifs are the protection of CpG ODNs from DNase degradation and the delivery of CpG ODNs to the Toll-like receptor-9 expressed human B-cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Therefore, great efforts have been devoted to the advances of efficient delivery systems for CpG ODNs. In this review, we outline new horizons and recent developments in this field, providing a comprehensive summary of the nanoparticle-based CpG delivery systems developed to improve the efficacy of CpG-mediated immune responses, including DNA nanostructures, inorganic nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles, metal-organic-frameworks, lipid-based nanosystems, proteins and peptides, as well as exosomes and cell membrane nanoparticles. Moreover, future challenges in the establishment of CpG delivery systems for immunotherapeutic applications are discussed. We expect that the continuously growing interest in the development of CpG-based immunotherapy will certainly fuel the excitement and stimulation in medicine research.

Recent Progress of Bioinspired Cell Membrane in Cancer Immunotherapy

By modifying immune cells, immunotherapy can activate immune response to establish long-term immune memory and prevent tumor recurrence. However, their effectiveness is largely constricted by the poor immunogenicity, immune escape, and immune tolerance of the tumor. This is related to the characteristics of the tumor itself, such as genome instability and mutation. The combination of various nanocarriers with tumor immunotherapy is beneficial for overcoming the shortcomings of traditional immunotherapy. Nanocarriers coated by cell membranes can extend blood circulation time, improve ability to evade immune clearance, and enhance targeting, thus significantly enhancing the efficacy of immunotherapy and showing great potential in tumor immunotherapy. This article reviews the application research progress of different types of cell membrane-modified nanocarriers in tumor immunotherapy, immunotherapy combination therapy, and tumor vaccines, and provides prospects for future research.

Advanced Nano-Drug Delivery Systems in the Treatment of Ischemic Stroke

In recent years, the frequency of strokes has been on the rise year by year and has become the second leading cause of death around the world, which is characterized by a high mortality rate, high recurrence rate, and high disability rate. Ischemic strokes account for a large percentage of strokes. A reperfusion injury in ischemic strokes is a complex cascade of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, immune infiltration, and mitochondrial damage. Conventional treatments are ineffective, and the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) leads to inefficient drug delivery utilization, so researchers are turning their attention to nano-drug delivery systems. Functionalized nano-drug delivery systems have been widely studied and applied to the study of cerebral ischemic diseases due to their favorable biocompatibility, high efficiency, strong specificity, and specific targeting ability. In this paper, we briefly describe the pathological process of reperfusion injuries in strokes and focus on the therapeutic research progress of nano-drug delivery systems in ischemic strokes, aiming to provide certain references to understand the progress of research on nano-drug delivery systems (NDDSs).

Dual-Antigen-Displaying Nanovaccines Elicit Synergistic Immunoactivation for Treating Cancer and Preventing Infectious Complications

As one of the most common complications, infection causes the majority of mortality in cancer patients. However, therapeutic strategies that can simultaneously suppress tumors and protect patients from infection have been rarely reported. Here, the use of dual-antigen-displaying nanovaccines (DADNs) is described to elicit synergistic immunoactivation for treating cancer and preventing infectious complications. DADNs are prepared by wrapping immunoadjuvant-loaded nanoparticles with a hybrid coating, which is fused from cell membranes that are separately genetically engineered to express tumor and infectious pathogenic antigens. Due to the presence of a dual-antigen combination, DADNs are able to promote the maturation of dendritic cells and more importantly to trigger cross-presentation of both combined antigens. During in vivo investigations, we find that DADNs can reverse immunosuppression by stimulating tumor-associated antigen-specific T-cell responses, resulting in significantly delayed tumor growth in mice. These nanovaccines also elicit effective protective immunity against tumor challenges and induce robust production of pathogenic antigen-specific immunoglobulin G antibody in a prophylactic study. This work offers a unique approach to develop dual-mode vaccines, which are promising for synchronously treating cancer and preventing infection.

Immune cells: potential carriers or agents for drug delivery to the central nervous system

Drug delivery systems (DDS) have recently emerged as a promising approach for the unique advantages of drug protection and targeted delivery. However, the access of nanoparticles/drugs to the central nervous system (CNS) remains a challenge mainly due to the obstruction from brain barriers. Immune cells infiltrating the CNS in the pathological state have inspired the development of strategies for CNS foundation drug delivery. Herein, we outline the three major brain barriers in the CNS and the mechanisms by which immune cells migrate across the blood-brain barrier. We subsequently review biomimetic strategies utilizing immune cell-based nanoparticles for the delivery of nanoparticles/drugs to the CNS, as well as recent progress in rationally engineering immune cell-based DDS for CNS diseases. Finally, we discuss the challenges and opportunities of immune cell-based DDS in CNS diseases to promote their clinical development.

Membrane-Cloaked Nanoparticles for RNA Interference of β-Catenin in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

There is an outstanding need for targeted therapies for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), an aggressive breast cancer subtype. Since TNBC's rapid growth and metastasis are driven by hyperactive Wnt signaling, suppressing the key-pathway mediator β-catenin through RNA interference may improve patient outcomes. However, small interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA) molecules require a carrier to elicit targeted gene silencing. Here, we show that 4T1 cancer cell membrane wrapped poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) can deliver siRNA into TNBC cells, silence β-catenin expression, and reduce the cells' tumorigenic qualities. Compared to unwrapped and nontargeted NPs, the cancer cell membrane wrapped nanoparticles (CCNPs) exhibit dramatically improved uptake by TNBC cells versus breast epithelial cells and greater gene silencing at mRNA and protein levels. Congruently, β-catenin siRNA-loaded CCNPs significantly activate senescence in 2D cultured TNBC cells and reduce proliferation in 3D spheroids. This work advances the development of nucleic acid carriers for targeted RNA interference therapy.

A modular approach to enhancing cell membrane-coated nanoparticle functionality using genetic engineering

Since their initial development, cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CNPs) have become increasingly popular in the biomedical field. Despite their inherent versatility and ability to enable complex biological applications, there is considerable interest in augmenting the performance of CNPs through the introduction of additional functionalities. Here we demonstrate a genetic-engineering-based modular approach to CNP functionalization that can encompass a wide range of ligands onto the nanoparticle surface. The cell membrane coating is engineered to express a SpyCatcher membrane anchor that can readily form a covalent bond with any moiety modified with SpyTag. To demonstrate the broad utility of this technique, three unique targeted CNP formulations are generated using different classes of targeting ligands, including a designed ankyrin repeat protein, an affibody and a single-chain variable fragment. In vitro, the modified nanoparticles exhibit enhanced affinity towards cell lines overexpressing the cognate receptors for each ligand. When formulated with a chemotherapeutic payload, the modularly functionalized nanoparticles display strong targeting ability and growth suppression in a murine tumour xenograft model of ovarian cancer. Our data suggest genetic engineering offers a feasible approach for accelerating the development of multifunctional CNPs for a broad range of biomedical applications.

The role of dendritic cells in cancer immunity and therapeutic strategies

Dendritic cells (DCs) are asserted as the most potent antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that orchestrate both innate and adaptive immunity, being extremely effective in the induction of robust anti-cancer T cell responses. Hence, the modulation of DCs function represents an attractive target for improving cancer immunotherapy efficacy. A better understanding of the immunobiology of DCs, the interaction among DCs, immune effector cells and tumor cells in tumor microenvironment (TME) and the latest advances in biomedical engineering technology would be required for the design of optimal DC-based immunotherapy. In this review, we focus on elaborating the immunobiology of DCs in healthy and cancer environments, the recent advances in the development of enhancing endogenous DCs immunocompetence via immunomodulators as well as DC-based vaccines. The rapidly developing field of applying nanotechnology to improve DC-based immunotherapy is also highlighted.

Cell Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles for Precision Medicine: A Comprehensive Review of Coating Techniques for Tissue-Specific Therapeutics

Nanoencapsulation has become a recent advancement in drug delivery, enhancing stability, bioavailability, and enabling controlled, targeted substance delivery to specific cells or tissues. However, traditional nanoparticle delivery faces challenges such as a short circulation time and immune recognition. To tackle these issues, cell membrane-coated nanoparticles have been suggested as a practical alternative. The production process involves three main stages: cell lysis and membrane fragmentation, membrane isolation, and nanoparticle coating. Cell membranes are typically fragmented using hypotonic lysis with homogenization or sonication. Subsequent membrane fragments are isolated through multiple centrifugation steps. Coating nanoparticles can be achieved through extrusion, sonication, or a combination of both methods. Notably, this analysis reveals the absence of a universally applicable method for nanoparticle coating, as the three stages differ significantly in their procedures. This review explores current developments and approaches to cell membrane-coated nanoparticles, highlighting their potential as an effective alternative for targeted drug delivery and various therapeutic applications.

Cancer Cell Membrane-Based Materials for Biomedical Applications

The nanodelivery system provides a novel direction for disease diagnosis and treatment; however, its delivery effectiveness is restricted by the short biological half-life and inadequate tumor targeting. The immune evasion properties and homologous targeting capabilities of natural cell membranes, particularly those of cancer cell membranes (CCM), have gained significant interest. The integration of CCM and nanoparticles has resulted in the emergence of CCM-based nanoplatforms (CCM-NPs), which have gained significant attention due to their unique properties. CCM-NPs not only prolong the blood circulation time of core nanoparticles, but also direct them for homologous tumor targeting. Herein, the history and development of CCM-NPs as well as how these platforms have been used for biomedical applications are discussed. The application of CCM-NPs for cancer therapy will be described in detail. Translational efforts are currently under way and further research to address key areas of need will ultimately be required to facilitate the successful clinical adoption of CCM-NPs.

Ultrasound-nanovesicles interplay for theranostics

Nanovesicles (NVs) are widely used in the treatment and diagnosis of diseases due to their excellent vascular permeability, good biocompatibility, high loading capacity, and easy functionalization. However, their yield and in vivo penetration depth limitations and their complex preparation processes still constrain their application and development. Ultrasound, as a fundamental external stimulus with deep tissue penetration, concentrated energy sources, and good safety, has been proven to be a patient-friendly and highly efficient strategy to overcome the restrictions of traditional clinical medicine. Recent research has shown that ultrasound can drive the generation of NVs, increase their yield, simplify their preparation process, and provide direct therapeutic effects and intelligent control to enhance the therapeutic effect of NVs. In addition, NVs, as excellent drug carriers, can enhance the targeting efficiency of ultrasound-based sonodynamic therapy or sonogenetic regulation and improve the accuracy of ultrasound imaging. This review provides a detailed introduction to the classification, generation, and modification strategies of NVs, emphasizing the impact of ultrasound on the formation of NVs and summarizing the enhanced treatment and diagnostic effects of NVs combined with ultrasound for various diseases.

Red blood cell-derived materials for cancer therapy: Construction, distribution, and applications

Cancer has become an increasingly important public health issue owing to its high morbidity and mortality rates. Although traditional treatment methods are relatively effective, they have limitations such as highly toxic side effects, easy drug resistance, and high individual variability. Meanwhile, emerging therapies remain limited, and their actual anti-tumor effects need to be improved. Nanotechnology has received considerable attention for its development and application. In particular, artificial nanocarriers have emerged as a crucial approach for tumor therapy. However, certain deficiencies persist, including immunogenicity, permeability, targeting, and biocompatibility. The application of erythrocyte-derived materials will help overcome the above problems and enhance therapeutic effects. Erythrocyte-derived materials can be acquired via the application of physical and chemical techniques from natural erythrocyte membranes, or through the integration of these membranes with synthetic inner core materials using cell membrane biomimetic technology. Their natural properties such as biocompatibility and long circulation time make them an ideal choice for drug delivery or nanoparticle biocoating. Thus, red blood cell-derived materials are widely used in the field of biomedicine. However, further studies are required to evaluate their efficacy, in vivo metabolism, preparation, design, and clinical translation. Based on the latest research reports, this review summarizes the biology, synthesis, characteristics, and distribution of red blood cell-derived materials. Furthermore, we provide a reference for further research and clinical transformation by comprehensively discussing the applications and technical challenges faced by red blood cell-derived materials in the treatment of malignant tumors.

Exploring the Impact of Nanoparticle Stealth Coatings in Cancer Models: From PEGylation to Cell Membrane-Coating Nanotechnology

Nanotechnological platforms offer advantages over conventional therapeutic and diagnostic modalities. However, the efficient biointerfacing of nanomaterials for biomedical applications remains challenging. In recent years, nanoparticles (NPs) with different coatings have been developed to reduce nonspecific interactions, prolong circulation time, and improve therapeutic outcomes. This study aims to compare various NP coatings to enhance surface engineering for more effective nanomedicines. We prepared and characterized polystyrene NPs with different coatings of poly(ethylene glycol), bovine serum albumin, chitosan, and cell membranes from a human breast cancer cell line. The coating was found to affect the colloidal stability, adhesion, and elastic modulus of NPs. Protein corona formation and cellular uptake of NPs were also investigated, and a 3D tumor model was employed to provide a more realistic representation of the tumor microenvironment. The prepared NPs were found to reduce protein adsorption, and cell-membrane-coated NPs showed significantly higher cellular uptake. The secretion of proinflammatory cytokines in human monocytes after incubation with the prepared NPs was evaluated. Overall, the study demonstrates the importance of coatings in affecting the behavior and interaction of nanosystems with biological entities. The findings provide insight into bionano interactions and are important for the effective implementation of stealth surface engineering designs.

Engineered Biomimetic Nanovesicles Based on Neutrophils for Hierarchical Targeting Therapy of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) is a clinically severe respiratory disease that causes severe medical and economic burden. To improve therapeutic efficacy, effectively targeting delivery to the inflamed lungs and inflamed cells remains an ongoing challenge. Herein, we designed engineered biomimetic nanovesicles (DHA@ANeu-DDAB) by fusion of lung-targeting functional lipid, neutrophil membrane containing activated β2 integrins, and the therapeutic lipid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). By the advantage of lung targeting lipid and β2 integrin targeting adhesion, DHA@ANeu-DDAB can first target lung tissue and further target inflammatory vascular endothelial cells, to achieve "tissue first, cell second" hierarchical delivery. In addition, the β2 integrins in DHA@ANeu-DDAB could bind to the intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1/2 (ICAM-1/2) ligand on the endothelium in the inflamed blood vessels, thus inhibiting neutrophils' infiltration in the blood circulation. DHA administration to inflamed lungs could effectively regulate macrophage phenotype and promote its anti-inflammatory activity via enhanced biosynthesis of specialized pro-resolving mediators. In the lipopolysaccharide-induced ARDS mouse model, DHA@ANeu-DDAB afforded a comprehensive and efficient inhibition of lung inflammation and promoted acute lung damage repair. Through mimicking physiological processes, these engineered biomimetic vesicles as a delivery system possess good potential in targeting therapy for ARDS.

Intracellular self-aggregation of biomimetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles for enhanced ferroptosis-inducing therapy of breast cancer

Nanomedicines based on ferroptosis may be effective strategies for cancer therapy due to their unique inducing mechanism. However, the challenges, including non-target distribution, poor accumulation and retention of nanomedicine, have a profound impact on the effectiveness of drug delivery. Here, we developed cancer cell membrane (CCM)-coated Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs) modified with supramolecular precursors and loaded with sulfasalazine (SAS) for breast cancer therapy. Benefiting from the coating of the CCM, these NPs can be specifically recognized and internalized by tumor cells rapidly after being administered and form aggregates via the host-guest interaction between adamantane (ADA) and cyclodextrins (CD), which in turn effectively reduces the exocytosis of tumor cells and prolongs the retention time. In vitro and in vivo studies showed that Fe3O4 NPs possessed effective cellular uptake and precise specific accumulation in tumor cells and tissues through CCM-targeted supramolecular in situ aggregation, demonstrating enhanced ferroptosis-inducing therapy of breast cancer. Overall, this work provided a supramolecular biomimetic platform to achieve targeted delivery of Fe3O4 NPs with high efficiency and precise self-assembly for improved cancer therapy.

Nanovaccines: An effective therapeutic approach for cancer therapy

Cancer vaccines hold considerable promise for the immunotherapy of solid tumors. Nanomedicine offers several strategies for enhancing vaccine effectiveness. In particular, molecular or (sub) cellular vaccines can be delivered to the target lymphoid tissues and cells by nanocarriers and nanoplatforms to increase the potency and durability of antitumor immunity and minimize negative side effects. Nanovaccines use nanoparticles (NPs) as carriers and/or adjuvants, offering the advantages of optimal nanoscale size, high stability, ample antigen loading, high immunogenicity, tunable antigen presentation, increased retention in lymph nodes, and immunity promotion. To induce antitumor immunity, cancer vaccines rely on tumor antigens, which are administered in the form of entire cells, peptides, nucleic acids, extracellular vesicles (EVs), or cell membrane-encapsulated NPs. Ideal cancer vaccines stimulate both humoral and cellular immunity while overcoming tumor-induced immune suppression. Herein, we review the key properties of nanovaccines for cancer immunotherapy and highlight the recent advances in their development based on the structure and composition of various (including synthetic and semi (biogenic) nanocarriers. Moreover, we discuss tumor cell-derived vaccines (including those based on whole-tumor-cell components, EVs, cell membrane-encapsulated NPs, and hybrid membrane-coated NPs), nanovaccine action mechanisms, and the challenges of immunocancer therapy and their translation to clinical applications.

Cell-Based Micro/Nano-Robots for Biomedical Applications: A Review

Micro/nano-robots are powerful tools for biomedical applications and are applied in disease diagnosis, tumor imaging, drug delivery, and targeted therapy. Among the various types of micro-robots, cell-based micro-robots exhibit unique properties because of their different cell sources. In combination with various actuation methods, particularly externally propelled methods, cell-based microrobots have enormous potential for biomedical applications. This review introduces recent progress and applications of cell-based micro/nano-robots. Different actuation methods for micro/nano-robots are summarized, and cell-based micro-robots with different cell templates are introduced. Furthermore, the review focuses on the combination of cell-based micro/nano-robots with precise control using different external fields. Potential challenges, further prospects, and clinical translations are also discussed.

Cell Membrane-Camouflaged Nanoparticles Mediated Nucleic Acids Delivery

Nucleic acids have emerged as promising therapeutic agents for many diseases because of their potential in modulating gene expression. However, the delivery of nucleic acids remains a significant challenge in gene therapy. Although viral vectors have shown high transfection efficiency, concerns regarding teratogenicity or carcinogenicity have been raised. Non-viral vehicles, including cationic polymers, liposomes, and inorganic materials possess advantages in terms of safety, ease of preparation, and low cost. Nevertheless, they also face limitations related to immunogenicity, quick clearance in vivo, and lack of targeting specificity. On the other hand, bioinspired strategies have shown increasing potential in the field of drug delivery, yet there is a lack of comprehensive reviews summarizing the rapid development of bioinspired nanoparticles based on the cell membrane camouflage to construct the nucleic acids vehicles. Herein, we enumerated the current difficulties in nucleic acid delivery with various non-viral vehicles and provided an overview of bioinspired strategies for nucleic acid delivery.