1
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Choi JS, Fortunato GV, Jung DC, Lourenço JC, Lanza MRV, Ledendecker M. Catalyst durability in electrocatalytic H 2O 2 production: key factors and challenges. NANOSCALE HORIZONS 2024; 9:1250-1261. [PMID: 38847073 DOI: 10.1039/d4nh00109e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
On-demand electrocatalytic hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production is a significant technological advancement that offers a promising alternative to the traditional anthraquinone process. This approach leverages electrocatalysts for the selective reduction of oxygen through a two-electron transfer mechanism (ORR-2e-), holding great promise for delivering a sustainable and economically efficient means of H2O2 production. However, the harsh operating conditions during the electrochemical H2O2 production lead to the degradation of both structural integrity and catalytic efficacy in these materials. Here, we systematically examine the design strategies and materials typically utilized in the electroproduction of H2O2 in acidic environments. We delve into the prevalent reactor conditions and scrutinize the factors contributing to catalyst deactivation. Additionally, we propose standardised benchmarking protocols aimed at evaluating catalyst stability under such rigorous conditions. To this end, we advocate for the adoption of three distinct accelerated stress tests to comprehensively assess catalyst performance and durability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Sik Choi
- Department of Technical Chemistry, Technical University of Darmstadt, Peter-Grünberg-Straße 8, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany.
- Sustainable Energy Materials, Technical University Munich, Campus Straubing, Schulgasse 22, 94315 Straubing, Germany.
| | - Guilherme V Fortunato
- Department of Technical Chemistry, Technical University of Darmstadt, Peter-Grünberg-Straße 8, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany.
- Sustainable Energy Materials, Technical University Munich, Campus Straubing, Schulgasse 22, 94315 Straubing, Germany.
- São Carlos Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Avenida Trabalhador São-Carlense 400, São Carlos, SP 13566-590, Brazil
| | - Daniele C Jung
- Department of Technical Chemistry, Technical University of Darmstadt, Peter-Grünberg-Straße 8, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany.
| | - Julio C Lourenço
- Sustainable Energy Materials, Technical University Munich, Campus Straubing, Schulgasse 22, 94315 Straubing, Germany.
- São Carlos Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Avenida Trabalhador São-Carlense 400, São Carlos, SP 13566-590, Brazil
| | - Marcos R V Lanza
- São Carlos Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Avenida Trabalhador São-Carlense 400, São Carlos, SP 13566-590, Brazil
| | - Marc Ledendecker
- Sustainable Energy Materials, Technical University Munich, Campus Straubing, Schulgasse 22, 94315 Straubing, Germany.
- Helmholtz Institute Erlangen-Nürnberg for Renewable Energy (IEK-11), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Cauerstr. 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
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Du Z, Yu F, Wang J, Li J, Wang X, Qian A. Catalytic effects of graphene structures on Pt/graphene catalysts. RSC Adv 2024; 14:22486-22496. [PMID: 39015668 PMCID: PMC11251395 DOI: 10.1039/d4ra02841d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Pt/C catalysts have been considered the ideal cathodic catalyst for proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) due to their superior oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) catalytic activity at low temperatures. However, oxidation and corrosion of the carbon black support at the cathode result in the agglomeration of Pt particles, which reduces the active sites in the Pt/C catalyst. Graphene supports have shown great promise to address this issue, and therefore, finding out the main structural features of the graphene support is of great significance for guiding the rational construction of graphene-based Pt (Pt/graphene) catalysts for optimized ORR catalysts. In order to systematically study the influence of the structural features of the graphene support on the electro-catalytic properties of Pt/graphene catalysts, we prepared porous nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide (P-NRGO), nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide (NRGO), treated P-NRGO (TP-NRGO) and reduced graphene oxide (RGO) with different nitrogen species contents (7.76, 7.54, 3.24, and 0.14 at%), oxygen species contents (18.68, 18.12, 6.34 and 21.12 at%), specific surface areas (370.4, 70.6, 347.7 and 276.2 m2 g-1) and pore volumes (1.366, 0.1424, 1.3299 and 1.0414 cm3 g-1). The ORR activity of the four Pt/graphene catalysts when listed in the order of their half-wave potentials (E 1/2) and peak power densities was found to be as Pt/P-NRGO > Pt/NRGO > Pt/TP-NRGO > Pt/RGO. The long-term durability of Pt/P-NRGO for the operation of H2-air PEMFCs is better than that of commercial Pt/C catalysts. The excellent ORR catalytic performance of Pt/P-NRGO compared to that of the other three Pt/graphene catalysts is ascribed to the high nitrogen species content of P-NRGO that can facilitate the uniform dispersion of Pt particles and provide accessible active sites for ORR. The results indicate that the specific surface area (SSA) and heteroatom dopants have strong influence on the Pt particle size, and that the nitrogen species of graphene supports play a more important role than the oxygen species, specific surface area and pore volume for the Pt/graphene catalysts in providing accessible active sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenzhen Du
- AECC Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials Beijing 100095 China
- Beijing Institute of Graphene Technology Beijing 100094 China
| | - Fan Yu
- Beijing Institute of Graphene Technology Beijing 100094 China
| | - Jun Wang
- AECC Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials Beijing 100095 China
- Beijing Institute of Graphene Technology Beijing 100094 China
| | - Jiongli Li
- AECC Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials Beijing 100095 China
- Beijing Institute of Graphene Technology Beijing 100094 China
| | - Xudong Wang
- AECC Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials Beijing 100095 China
- Beijing Institute of Graphene Technology Beijing 100094 China
| | - Aniu Qian
- Institute of Resources and Environment Engineering, Shanxi University Taiyuan 030006 China
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Zhu L, Li Q, Hu Y, Wu X, Reddy KM, Li K, Xie G, Liu X, Qiu HJ. Bubbling resilient 3D free-standing nanoporous graphene with an encapsulated multicomponent nano-alloy for enhanced electrocatalysis. NANOSCALE HORIZONS 2024. [PMID: 38919145 DOI: 10.1039/d4nh00190g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
The design and synthesis of highly durable and active electrocatalysts are crucial for improving the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). In this work, we present a novel dealloyed nanoporous PtCuNiCoMn multicomponent alloy with ligaments/pores ranging from 2-3 nm, which is in situ encapsulated in a three-dimensional, free-standing nanoporous nanotubular graphene network featuring a pore/tube diameter of ∼200 to 300 nm. This method allows precise control over the noble metal loading and alloy composition while preventing noble metal loss throughout the preparation process. The innovative bimodal nanoporous graphene/alloy structure, coupled with an open 3D spongy morphology, and optimized surface Pt electronic structure through multicomponent interaction, significantly enhances the activity for the HER/ORR, outperforming commercial Pt/C. Moreover, this design addresses the issues of Pt nanoparticle aggregation and detachment from carbon supports that typically exist in Pt/C-type catalysts, thereby substantially improving the catalytic durability, even under intense gas bubbling conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linshan Zhu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, China.
| | - Qingqing Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, China.
- Zhejiang Laboratory, Hangzhou 311100, China
| | - Yixuan Hu
- Frontier Research Center for Materials Structure, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
| | - Xin Wu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, China.
| | - Kolan Madhav Reddy
- Frontier Research Center for Materials Structure, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
| | - Kaikai Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, China.
| | - Guoqiang Xie
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, China.
| | - Xingjun Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, China.
| | - Hua-Jun Qiu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, China.
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
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4
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Ponomarev II, Volkova YA, Skupov KM, Vtyurina ES, Ponomarev II, Ilyin MM, Nikiforov RY, Alentiev AY, Zhigalina OM, Khmelenin DN, Strelkova TV, Modestov AD. Unique Self-Phosphorylating Polybenzimidazole of the 6F Family for HT-PEM Fuel Cell Application. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6001. [PMID: 38892189 PMCID: PMC11172766 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25116001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
High-temperature polymer-electrolyte membrane fuel cells (HT-PEMFCs) are a very important type of fuel cells since they operate at 150-200 °C, making it possible to use hydrogen contaminated with CO. However, the need to improve the stability and other properties of gas-diffusion electrodes still impedes their distribution. Self-supporting anodes based on carbon nanofibers (CNF) are prepared using the electrospinning method from a polyacrylonitrile solution containing zirconium salt, followed by pyrolysis. After the deposition of Pt nanoparticles on the CNF surface, the composite anodes are obtained. A new self-phosphorylating polybenzimidazole of the 6F family is applied to the Pt/CNF surface to improve the triple-phase boundary, gas transport, and proton conductivity of the anode. This polymer coating ensures a continuous interface between the anode and proton-conducting membrane. The polymer is investigated using CO2 adsorption, TGA, DTA, FTIR, GPC, and gas permeability measurements. The anodes are studied using SEM, HAADF STEM, and CV. The operation of the membrane-electrode assembly in the H2/air HT-PEMFC shows that the application of the new PBI of the 6F family with good gas permeability as a coating for the CNF anodes results in an enhancement of HT-PEMFC performance, reaching 500 mW/cm2 at 1.3 A/cm2 (at 180 °C), compared with the previously studied PBI-O-PhT-P polymer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor I. Ponomarev
- A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds of Russian Academy of Sciences, 28 Vavilova St., bld. 1, Moscow 119334, Russia; (I.I.P.); (Y.A.V.); (E.S.V.); (I.I.P.); (M.M.I.); (T.V.S.)
| | - Yulia A. Volkova
- A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds of Russian Academy of Sciences, 28 Vavilova St., bld. 1, Moscow 119334, Russia; (I.I.P.); (Y.A.V.); (E.S.V.); (I.I.P.); (M.M.I.); (T.V.S.)
| | - Kirill M. Skupov
- A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds of Russian Academy of Sciences, 28 Vavilova St., bld. 1, Moscow 119334, Russia; (I.I.P.); (Y.A.V.); (E.S.V.); (I.I.P.); (M.M.I.); (T.V.S.)
| | - Elizaveta S. Vtyurina
- A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds of Russian Academy of Sciences, 28 Vavilova St., bld. 1, Moscow 119334, Russia; (I.I.P.); (Y.A.V.); (E.S.V.); (I.I.P.); (M.M.I.); (T.V.S.)
| | - Ivan I. Ponomarev
- A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds of Russian Academy of Sciences, 28 Vavilova St., bld. 1, Moscow 119334, Russia; (I.I.P.); (Y.A.V.); (E.S.V.); (I.I.P.); (M.M.I.); (T.V.S.)
| | - Mikhail M. Ilyin
- A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds of Russian Academy of Sciences, 28 Vavilova St., bld. 1, Moscow 119334, Russia; (I.I.P.); (Y.A.V.); (E.S.V.); (I.I.P.); (M.M.I.); (T.V.S.)
| | - Roman Y. Nikiforov
- A.V. Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, 29 Leninsky Av., Moscow 119991, Russia; (R.Y.N.); (A.Y.A.)
| | - Alexander Y. Alentiev
- A.V. Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, 29 Leninsky Av., Moscow 119991, Russia; (R.Y.N.); (A.Y.A.)
| | - Olga M. Zhigalina
- A.V. Shubnikov Institute of Crystallography of Federal Scientific Research Centre “Crystallography and Photonics”of Russian Academy of Sciences, 59 Leninsky Av., Moscow 119333, Russia; (O.M.Z.); (D.N.K.)
| | - Dmitry N. Khmelenin
- A.V. Shubnikov Institute of Crystallography of Federal Scientific Research Centre “Crystallography and Photonics”of Russian Academy of Sciences, 59 Leninsky Av., Moscow 119333, Russia; (O.M.Z.); (D.N.K.)
| | - Tatyana V. Strelkova
- A.N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds of Russian Academy of Sciences, 28 Vavilova St., bld. 1, Moscow 119334, Russia; (I.I.P.); (Y.A.V.); (E.S.V.); (I.I.P.); (M.M.I.); (T.V.S.)
| | - Alexander D. Modestov
- A.N. Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, 31 Leninsky Av., bld. 4., Moscow 119071, Russia
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Jo SY, Kim H, Park H, Ahn CY, Chung DY. Investigating Electrode-Ionomer Interface Phenomena for Electrochemical Energy Applications. Chem Asian J 2024; 19:e202301016. [PMID: 38146665 DOI: 10.1002/asia.202301016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023]
Abstract
The endeavor to develop high-performance electrochemical energy applications has underscored the growing importance of comprehending the intricate dynamics within an electrode's structure and their influence on overall performance. This review investigates the complexities of electrode-ionomer interactions, which play a critical role in optimizing electrochemical reactions. Our examination encompasses both microscopic and meso/macro scale functions of ionomers at the electrode-ionomer interface, providing a thorough analysis of how these interactions can either enhance or impede surface reactions. Furthermore, this review explores the broader-scale implications of ionomer distribution within porous electrodes, taking into account factors like ionomer types, electrode ink formulation, and carbon support interactions. We also present and evaluate state-of-the-art techniques for investigating ionomer distribution, including electrochemical methods, imaging, modeling, and analytical techniques. Finally, the performance implications of these phenomena are discussed in the context of energy conversion devices. Through this comprehensive exploration of intricate interactions, this review contributes to the ongoing advancements in the field of energy research, ultimately facilitating the design and development of more efficient and sustainable energy devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- So Yeong Jo
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of, Korea
| | - Hanjoo Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of, Korea
| | - Hyein Park
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of, Korea
| | - Chi-Yeong Ahn
- Alternative Fuels and Power System Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Ships and Ocean Engineering (KRISO), Daejeon, 34103, Republic of, Korea
- Department of Green Mobility, University of Science and Technology (UST), Daejeon, 34113, Republic of, Korea
| | - Dong Young Chung
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, 34141, Republic of, Korea
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Wang Y, Wang S, Sui Z, Gu Y, Zhang Y, Gao J, Lei Y, Zhao J, Li N, Wu J, Wang Z. "Fishbone" Design of Amino/N-Spirocyclic Cations toward High-Performance Poly(triphenylene piperidine) Anion-Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cells. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:4003-4012. [PMID: 38207002 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c16029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
N-Spirocyclic cations have excellent alkali resistance stability, and precise design of the structure of N-spirocyclic anion-exchange membranes (AEMs) improves their comprehensive performance. Here, we design and synthesize high-performance poly(triphenylene piperidine) membranes based on the "fishbone" design of amino/N-spirocyclic cations. The "fishbone" design does not disrupt the overall stabilized conformation but promotes a microphase separation structure, while exerting the synergistic effect of piperidine cations and spirocyclic cations, resulting in a membrane with good conductivity and alkali resistance stability. The hydroxide conductivity of the QPTPip-ASU-X membrane reached up to 133.5 mS cm-1 at 80 °C. The QPTPip-ASU-15 membrane was immersed in a 2 M NaOH solution at 80 °C for 1200 h, and the conductivity was maintained at 91.02%. In addition, the QPTPip-ASU-5 membrane had the highest peak power density of 255 mW cm-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
- Advanced Institute of Materials Science, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Song Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Zhiyan Sui
- Advanced Institute of Materials Science, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Yiman Gu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
- Advanced Institute of Materials Science, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Yanchao Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Jian Gao
- School of Chemical Engineering, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
- Advanced Institute of Materials Science, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Yijia Lei
- School of Chemical Engineering, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Jialin Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Na Li
- School of Chemical Engineering, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - JingYi Wu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
| | - Zhe Wang
- School of Chemistry and Life Sciences, Changchun University of Technology, Changchun 130012, China
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Polymer Membrane Materials of Jilin Province, Changchun 130012, China
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Zou T, Wang Y, Xu F. Defect-Engineered Charge Transfer in a PtCu/Pr xCe 1-xO 2 Carbon-Free Catalyst for Promoting the Methanol Oxidation and Oxygen Reduction Reactions. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:58296-58308. [PMID: 38064379 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c11446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2023]
Abstract
Platinum (Pt) and Pt-based alloys have been extensively studied as efficient catalysts for both the anode and cathode of direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC). Defect engineering has been revealed to be practicable in tuning the charge transfer between Pt and transition metals/supports, which leads to the charge density rearrangement and facilitates the electrocatalytic performance. Herein, Pr-doped CeO2 nanocubes were used as the noncarbon support of a PtCu catalyst. The concentration and structure of oxygen vacancy (Vo) defects were engineered by Pr doping. Besides the Vo monomer, the oxygen vacancy with a linear structure is also observed, leading to the one-dimensional PtCu. The Vo concentration shows the volcanic scenario as Pr increased. Accordingly, the activities of PtCu/PrxCe1-xO2 toward methanol oxidation and oxygen reduction reactions exhibit the volcanic scenario. PtCu/Pr0.15Ce0.85O2 exhibits the optimal catalytic performance with the specific activity 3.57 times higher than that of Pt/C toward MOR and 1.34 times higher toward ORR. The MOR and ORR mass activities of PtCu/Pr0.15Ce0.85O2 reached 1.05 and 0.12 A·mg-1, which are 3.09 and 0.92 times the values of Pt/C, respectively. The abundant Vo afforded surplus electrons, which tailored the electron transfer between PtCu and PrxCe1-xO2, leading to enhanced catalytic performance of PtCu/PrxCe1-xO2. DFT calculations on PtCu/Pr0.15Ce0.85O2 revealed that Pr doping reduced the band gap of CeO2 and lowered the overpotential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianhua Zou
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Yifen Wang
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Feng Xu
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350002, China
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Long D, Xie Z, Wang M, Chen S, Wei Z. A phosphate tolerant Pt-based oxygen reduction catalyst enabled by synergistic modulation of alloying and surface modification. Chem Commun (Camb) 2023; 59:14277-14280. [PMID: 37962016 DOI: 10.1039/d3cc04560a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Addressing phosphoric acid poisoning of platinum-based catalysts in high-temperature fuel cells still remains a strategic and synthetic problem. Here, we synthesized a Pt3Co@MoOx-NC catalyst with a Pt3Co active core and MoOx modification on the surface, which simultaneously exhibits high ORR activity and phosphate tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daojun Long
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Chemical Power Sources (SKL-ACPS), Chongqing, China
| | - Zhenyang Xie
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Chemical Power Sources (SKL-ACPS), Chongqing, China
| | - Minjian Wang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Chemical Power Sources (SKL-ACPS), Chongqing, China
| | - Siguo Chen
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Chemical Power Sources (SKL-ACPS), Chongqing, China
| | - Zidong Wei
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Chemical Power Sources (SKL-ACPS), Chongqing, China
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