Synchronous Disintegration of Ferroptosis Defense Axis via Engineered Exosome-Conjugated Magnetic Nanoparticles for Glioblastoma Therapy

Exosome may be the next generation of promising cell-free vaccines

Traditional vaccines have limits against some persistent infections and pathogens. The development of novel vaccine technologies is particularly critical for the future. Exosomes play an important role in physiological and pathological processes. Exosomes present many advantages, such as inherent capacity being biocompatible, non-toxic, which make them a more desirable candidate for vaccines. However, research on exosomes are in their infancy and the barriers of low yield, low purity, and weak targeting of exosomes limit their applications in vaccines. Accordingly, further exploration is necessary to improve these problems and subsequently facilitate the functional studies of exosomes. In this study, we reviewed the origin, classification, functions, modifications, separation and purification, and characterization methods of exosomes. Meanwhile, we focused on the role and mechanism of exosomes for cancer and COVID-19 vaccines.

The engineered exosomes targeting ferroptosis: A novel approach to reverse immune checkpoint inhibitors resistance

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have been extensively used in immunological therapy primarily due to their ability to prolong patient survival. Although ICIs have achieved success in cancer treatment, the resistance of ICIs should not be overlooked. Ferroptosis is a newly found cell death mode characterized by the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), glutathione (GSH) depletion, and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) inactivation, which has been demonstrated to be beneficial to immunotherapy and combining ferroptosis and ICIs to exploit new immunotherapies may reverse ICIs resistance. Exosomes act as mediators in cell-to-cell communication that may regulate ferroptosis to influence immunotherapy through the secretion of biological molecules. Thus, utilizing exosomes to target ferroptosis has opened up exciting possibilities for reversing ICIs resistance. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms of ferroptosis improving ICIs therapy and how exosomes regulate ferroptosis through adjusting iron metabolism, blocking the ROS accumulation, controlling ferroptosis defense systems, and influencing classic signaling pathways and how engineered exosomes target ferroptosis and improve ICIs efficiency.

The biomedical application of inorganic metal nanoparticles in aging and aging-associated diseases

Aging and aging-associated diseases (AAD), including neurodegenerative disease, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes, are inevitable process. With the gradual improvement of life style, life expectancy is gradually extended. However, the extended lifespan has not reduced the incidence of disease, and most elderly people are in ill-health state in their later years. Hence, understanding aging and AAD are significant for reducing the burden of the elderly. Inorganic metal nanoparticles (IMNPs) predominantly include gold, silver, iron, zinc, titanium, thallium, platinum, cerium, copper NPs, which has been widely used to prevent and treat aging and AAD due to their superior properties (essential metal ions for human body, easily synthesis and modification, magnetism). Therefore, a systematic review of common morphological alternations of senescent cells, altered genes and signal pathways in aging and AAD, and biomedical applications of IMNPs in aging and AAD is crucial for the further research and development of IMNPs in aging and AAD. This review focus on the existing research on cellular senescence, aging and AAD, as well as the applications of IMNPs in aging and AAD in the past decade. This review aims to provide cutting-edge knowledge involved with aging and AAD, the application of IMNPs in aging and AAD to promote the biomedical application of IMNPs in aging and AAD.

Peptide-conjugated Nanoparticle Platforms for Targeted Delivery, Imaging, and Biosensing Applications

Peptides have become an indispensable tool in engineering of multifunctional nanostructure platforms for biomedical applications such as targeted drug and gene delivery, imaging and biosensing. They can be covalently incorporated into a variety of nanoparticles (NPs) including polymers, metallic nanoparticles, and others. Using different bioconjugation techniques, multifunctional peptide-modified NPs can be formulated to produce therapeutical and diagnostic platforms offering high specificity, lower toxicity, biocompatibility, and stimuli responsive behavior. Targeting peptides can direct the nanoparticles into specific tissues for targeted drug and gene delivery and imaging applications due to their specificity towards certain receptors. Furthermore, due to their stimuli-responsive features, they can offer controlled release of therapeutics into desired sites of disease. In addition, peptide-based biosensors and imaging agents can provide non-invasive detection and monitoring of diseases including cancer, infectious diseases, and neurological disorders. In this review, we covered the design and formulation of recent peptide-based NP platforms, as well as their utilization in in vitro and in vivo applications such as targeted drug and gene delivery, targeting, sensing, and imaging applications. In the end, we provided the future outlook to design new peptide conjugated nanomaterials for biomedical applications.

Ferroptosis: emerging roles in lung cancer and potential implications in biological compounds

Lung cancer has high metastasis and drug resistance. The prognosis of lung cancer patients is poor and the patients' survival chances are easily neglected. Ferroptosis is a programmed cell death proposed in 2012, which differs from apoptosis, necrosis and autophagy. Ferroptosis is a novel type of regulated cell death which is driven by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation and subsequent plasma membrane ruptures. It has broad prospects in the field of tumor disease treatment. At present, multiple studies have shown that biological compounds can induce ferroptosis in lung cancer cells, which exhibits significant anti-cancer effects, and they have the advantages in high safety, minimal side effects, and less possibility to drug resistance. In this review, we summarize the biological compounds used for the treatment of lung cancer by focusing on ferroptosis and its mechanism. In addition, we systematically review the current research status of combining nanotechnology with biological compounds for tumor treatment, shed new light for targeting ferroptosis pathways and applying biological compounds-based therapies.

Ferroptosis in Glaucoma: A Promising Avenue for Therapy

Glaucoma, a blind-leading disease largely since chronic pathological intraocular high pressure (ph-IOP). Hitherto, it is reckoned incurable for irreversible neural damage and challenges in managing IOP. Thus, it is significant to develop neuroprotective strategies. Ferroptosis, initially identified as an iron-dependent regulated death that triggers Fenton reactions and culminates in lipid peroxidation (LPO), has emerged as a focal point in multiple tumors and neurodegenerative diseases. Researches show that iron homeostasis play critical roles in the optic nerve (ON) and retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), suggesting targeted treatments could be effective. In glaucoma, apart from neural lesions, disrupted metal balance and increased oxidative stress in trabecular meshwork (TM) are observed. These disturbances lead to extracellular matrix excretion disorders, known as sclerotic mechanisms, resulting in refractory blockages. Importantly, oxidative stress, a significant downstream effect of ferroptosis, is also a key factor in cell senescence. It plays a crucial role in both the etiology and risk of glaucoma. Moreover, ferroptosis also induces non-infectious inflammation, which exacerbate glaucomatous injury. Therefore, the relevance of ferroptosis in glaucoma is extensive and multifaceted. In this review, the study delves into the current understanding of ferroptosis mechanisms in glaucoma, aiming to provide clues to inform clinical therapeutic practices.

Weak Value Amplification-Based Biochip for Highly Sensitive Detection and Identification of Breast Cancer Exosomes

Exosomes constitute an emerging biomarker for cancer diagnosis because they carry multiple proteins that reflect the origins of the parent cell. The highly sensitive detection of exosomes is a crucial prerequisite for the diagnosis of cancer. In this study, we report an exosome detection system based on quantum weak value amplification (WVA). The WVA detection system consists of a reflection detection light path and a Zr-ionized biochip. Zr-ionized biochips effectively capture exosomes through the specific interaction between zirconium dioxide and the phosphate groups on the lipid bilayer of exosomes. Aptamer-modified gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) are then used to specifically recognize proteins on exosomes to enhance the detection signal. The sensitivity and resolution of the detection system are 2944.07 nm/RIU and 1.22 × 10-5 RIU, respectively. The concentration of exosomes can be directly quantified by the WVA system, ranging from 105-107 particles/mL with the detection limit of 3 × 104 particles/mL. The use of Au NPs-EpCAM for the specific enhancement of breast cancer MDA-MB-231 exosomes is demonstrated. The results indicate that the WVA detection system can be a promising candidate for the detection of exosomes as tumor markers.

Magnetic hybrid nanovesicles for the precise diagnosis and treatment of central nervous system disorders

INTRODUCTION

Central nervous system (CNS)-related disorders are increasingly being recognized as a global health challenge worldwide. There are significant challenges for effective diagnosis and treatment due to the presence of the CNS barriers which impede the management of neurological diseases. Combination of nanovesicles (NVs) and magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), referred to as magnetic nanovesicles (MNVs), is now well suggested as a potential theranostic option for improving the management of neurological disorders with increased targeting efficiency and minimized side effects.

AREAS COVERED

This review provides a summary of major CNS disorders and the physical barriers limiting the access of imaging/therapeutic agents to the CNS environment. A special focus on the unique features of MNPs and NV is discussed which make them attractive candidates for neuro-nanomedicine. Furthermore, a deeper understanding of MNVs as a promising combined strategy for diagnostic and/or therapeutic purposes in neurological disorders is provided.

EXPERT OPINION

The multifunctionality of MNVs offers the ability to overcome the CNS barriers and can be used to monitor the effectiveness of treatment. The insights provided will guide future research toward better outcomes and facilitate the development of next-generation, innovative treatments for CNS disorders.

Engineering Nanomedicine for Non-Viral RNA-Based Gene Therapy of Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common type of malignant tumor of the central nervous system, characterized by aggressiveness, genetic instability, heterogenesis, and unpredictable clinical behavior. Disappointing results from the current clinical therapeutic methods have fueled a search for new therapeutic targets and treatment modalities. GBM is characterized by various genetic alterations, and RNA-based gene therapy has raised particular attention in GBM therapy. Here, we review the recent advances in engineered non-viral nanocarriers for RNA drug delivery to treat GBM. Therapeutic strategies concerning the brain-targeted delivery of various RNA drugs involving siRNA, microRNA, mRNA, ASO, and short-length RNA and the therapeutical mechanisms of these drugs to tackle the challenges of chemo-/radiotherapy resistance, recurrence, and incurable stem cell-like tumor cells of GBM are herein outlined. We also highlight the progress, prospects, and remaining challenges of non-viral nanocarriers-mediated RNA-based gene therapy.

EphA2-specific microvesicles derived from tumor cells facilitate the targeted delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs for osteosarcoma therapy

Despite advances in surgery and chemotherapy, the survival of patients with osteosarcoma (OS) has not been fundamentally improved over the last two decades. Microvesicles (MVs) have a high cargo-loading capacity and are emerging as a promising drug delivery nanoplatform. The aim of this study was to develop MVs as specifically designed vehicles to enable OS-specific targeting and efficient treatment of OS. Herein, we designed and constructed a nanoplatform (YSA-SPION-MV/MTX) consisting of methotrexate (MTX)-loaded MVs coated with surface-carboxyl Fe3O4 superparamagnetic nanoparticles (SPIONs) conjugated with ephrin alpha 2 (EphA2)-targeted peptides (YSAYPDSVPMMS, YSA). YSA-SPION-MV/MTX showed an effective targeting effect on OS cells, which was depended on the binding of the YSA peptide to EphA2. In the orthotopic OS mouse model, YSA-SPION-MV/MTX effectively delivered drugs to tumor sites with specific targeting, resulting in superior anti-tumor activity compared to MTX or MV/MTX. And YSA-SPION-MV/MTX also reduced the side effects of high-dose MTX. Taken together, this strategy opens up a new avenue for OS therapy. And we expect this MV-based therapy to serve as a promising platform for the next generation of precision cancer nanomedicines.

Engineered smart materials for RNA based molecular therapy to treat Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive malignancy of the central nervous system (CNS) that remains incurable despite the multitude of improvements in cancer therapeutics. The conventional chemo and radiotherapy post-surgery have only been able to improve the prognosis slightly; however, the development of resistance and/or tumor recurrence is almost inevitable. There is a pressing need for adjuvant molecular therapies that can successfully and efficiently block tumor progression. During the last few decades, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have emerged as key players in regulating various hallmarks of cancer including that of GBM. The levels of many ncRNAs are dysregulated in cancer, and ectopic modulation of their levels by delivering antagonists or overexpression constructs could serve as an attractive option for cancer therapy. The therapeutic potential of several types of ncRNAs, including miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs, has been validated in both in vitro and in vivo models of GBM. However, the delivery of these RNA-based therapeutics is highly challenging, especially to the tumors of the brain as the blood-brain barrier (BBB) poses as a major obstacle, among others. Also, since RNA is extremely fragile in nature, careful considerations must be met while designing a delivery agent. In this review we have shed light on how ncRNA therapy can overcome the limitations of its predecessor conventional therapy with an emphasis on smart nanomaterials that can aide in the safe and targeted delivery of nucleic acids to treat GBM. Additionally, critical gaps that currently exist for successful transition from viral to non-viral vector delivery systems have been identified. Finally, we have provided a perspective on the future directions, potential pathways, and target areas for achieving rapid clinical translation of, RNA-based macromolecular therapy to advance the effective treatment of GBM and other related diseases.

Micro Trojan horses: Engineering extracellular vesicles crossing biological barriers for drug delivery

The biological barriers of the body, such as the blood-brain, placental, intestinal, skin, and air-blood, protect against invading viruses and bacteria while providing necessary physical support. However, these barriers also hinder the delivery of drugs to target tissues, reducing their therapeutic efficacy. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), nanostructures with a diameter ranging from 30 nm to 10 μm secreted by cells, offer a potential solution to this challenge. These natural vesicles can effectively pass through various biological barriers, facilitating intercellular communication. As a result, artificially engineered EVs that mimic or are superior to the natural ones have emerged as a promising drug delivery vehicle, capable of delivering drugs to almost any body part to treat various diseases. This review first provides an overview of the formation and cross-species uptake of natural EVs from different organisms, including animals, plants, and bacteria. Later, it explores the current clinical applications, perspectives, and challenges associated with using engineered EVs as a drug delivery platform. Finally, it aims to inspire further research to help bioengineered EVs effectively cross biological barriers to treat diseases.

Cathepsin B-Responsive Programmed Brain Targeted Delivery System for Chemo-Immunotherapy Combination Therapy of Glioblastoma

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are closely related to the progression of glioblastoma multiform (GBM) and its development of therapeutic resistance to conventional chemotherapy. TAM-targeted therapy combined with conventional chemotherapy has emerged as a promising strategy to combat GBM. However, the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) severely limits the therapeutic efficacy. Meanwhile, the lack of ability to distinguish different targeted cells also poses a challenge for precise therapy. Herein, we propose a cathepsin B (CTSB)-responsive programmed brain-targeted delivery system (D&R-HM-MCA) for simultaneous TAM-targeted and GBM-targeted delivery. D&R-HM-MCA could cross the BBB via low density lipoprotein receptor-associated protein 1 (LRP1)-mediated transcytosis. Upon reaching the GBM site, the outer angiopep-2 modification could be detached from D&R-HM-MCA via cleavage of the CTSB-responsive peptide, which could circumvent abluminal LRP1-mediated efflux. The exposed p-aminophenyl-α-d-mannopyranoside (MAN) modification could further recognize glucose transporter-1 (GLUT1) on GBM and macrophage mannose receptor (MMR) on TAMs. D&R-HM-MCA could achieve chemotherapeutic killing of GBM and simultaneously induce TAM polarization from anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype to pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype, thus resensitizing the chemotherapeutic response and improving anti-GBM immune response. This CTSB-responsive brain-targeted delivery system not only can improve brain delivery efficiency, but also can enable the combination of chemo-immunotherapy against GBM. The effectiveness of this strategy may provide thinking for designing more functional brain-targeted delivery systems and more effective therapeutic regimens.

Exosomes in Glioma: Unraveling Their Roles in Progression, Diagnosis, and Therapy

Gliomas, the most prevalent primary malignant brain tumors, present a challenging prognosis even after undergoing surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. Exosomes, nano-sized extracellular vesicles secreted by various cells, play a pivotal role in glioma progression and contribute to resistance against chemotherapy and radiotherapy by facilitating the transportation of biological molecules and promoting intercellular communication within the tumor microenvironment. Moreover, exosomes exhibit the remarkable ability to traverse the blood-brain barrier, positioning them as potent carriers for therapeutic delivery. These attributes hold promise for enhancing glioma diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. Recent years have witnessed significant advancements in exosome research within the realm of tumors. In this article, we primarily focus on elucidating the role of exosomes in glioma development, highlighting the latest breakthroughs in therapeutic and diagnostic approaches, and outlining prospective directions for future research.

Galectin inhibitors and nanoparticles as a novel therapeutic strategy for glioblastoma multiforme

Over the past two decades, the gold standard of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) treatment is unchanged and adjunctive therapy has offered little to prolong both quality and quantity of life. To improve pharmacotherapy for GBM, galectins are being studied provided their positive correlation with the malignancy and disease severity. Despite the use of galectin inhibitors and literature displaying the ability of the lectin proteins to decrease tumor burden and decrease mortality within various malignancies, galectin inhibitors have not been studied for GBM therapy. Interestingly, anti-galectin siRNA delivered in nanoparticle capsules, assisting in blood brain barrier penetrance, is well studied for GBM, and has demonstrated a remarkable ability to attenuate both galectin and tumor count. Provided that the two therapies have an analogous anti-galectin effect, it is hypothesized that galectin inhibitors encapsuled within nanoparticles will likely have a similar anti-galectin effect in GBM cells and further correlate to a repressed tumor burden.

Potential of Nanocarrier-Associated Approaches for Better Therapeutic Intervention in the Management of Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma, commonly known as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), is one of the deadliest and most invasive types of brain cancer. Two factors account for the majority of the treatment limitations for GBM. First, the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) renders malignancy treatment ineffective, leading to recurrence without full recovery. Second, several adverse effects are associated with the drugs used in conventional GBM treatment. Recent studies have developed nanocarrier systems, such as liposomes, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, nanosuspensions, nanoemulsions, nanostructured lipid carriers, solid lipid nanocarriers, metal particles, and silica nanoparticles, which allow drug-loaded formulations to penetrate the BBB more effectively. This has opened up new possibilities for overcoming therapy issues. Extensive and methodical searches of databases such as PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and others were conducted to gather relevant literature for this work, using precise keyword combinations such as "GBM," "brain tumor," and "nanocarriers." This review provides deep insights into the administration of drugs using nanocarriers for the management of GBM and explores new advancements in nanotechnology. It also highlights how scientific developments can be explained in connection with hopeful findings about the potential of nanocarriers for the future successful management of GBM.

Magnetic nanoparticles for ferroptosis cancer therapy with diagnostic imaging

Ferroptosis offers a novel method for overcoming therapeutic resistance of cancers to conventional cancer treatment regimens. Its effective use as a cancer therapy requires a precisely targeted approach, which can be facilitated by using nanoparticles and nanomedicine, and their use to enhance ferroptosis is indeed a growing area of research. While a few review papers have been published on iron-dependent mechanism and inducers of ferroptosis cancer therapy that partly covers ferroptosis nanoparticles, there is a need for a comprehensive review focusing on the design of magnetic nanoparticles that can typically supply iron ions to promote ferroptosis and simultaneously enable targeted ferroptosis cancer nanomedicine. Furthermore, magnetic nanoparticles can locally induce ferroptosis and combinational ferroptosis with diagnostic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The use of remotely controllable magnetic nanocarriers can offer highly effective localized image-guided ferroptosis cancer nanomedicine. Here, recent developments in magnetically manipulable nanocarriers for ferroptosis cancer nanomedicine with medical imaging are summarized. This review also highlights the advantages of current state-of-the-art image-guided ferroptosis cancer nanomedicine. Finally, image guided combinational ferroptosis cancer therapy with conventional apoptosis-based therapy that enables synergistic tumor therapy is discussed for clinical translations.

Nanocrystals for Deep-Tissue In Vivo Luminescence Imaging in the Near-Infrared Region

In vivo imaging technologies have emerged as a powerful tool for both fundamental research and clinical practice. In particular, luminescence imaging in the tissue-transparent near-infrared (NIR, 700-1700 nm) region offers tremendous potential for visualizing biological architectures and pathophysiological events in living subjects with deep tissue penetration and high imaging contrast owing to the reduced light-tissue interactions of absorption, scattering, and autofluorescence. The distinctive quantum effects of nanocrystals have been harnessed to achieve exceptional photophysical properties, establishing them as a promising category of luminescent probes. In this comprehensive review, the interactions between light and biological tissues, as well as the advantages of NIR light for in vivo luminescence imaging, are initially elaborated. Subsequently, we focus on achieving deep tissue penetration and improved imaging contrast by optimizing the performance of nanocrystal fluorophores. The ingenious design strategies of NIR nanocrystal probes are discussed, along with their respective biomedical applications in versatile in vivo luminescence imaging modalities. Finally, thought-provoking reflections on the challenges and prospects for future clinical translation of nanocrystal-based in vivo luminescence imaging in the NIR region are wisely provided.

Current progression in application of extracellular vesicles in central nervous system diseases

Early diagnosis and pharmacological treatment of central nervous system (CNS) diseases has been a long-standing challenge for clinical research due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier. Specific proteins and RNAs in brain-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) usually reflect the corresponding state of brain disease, and therefore, EVs can be used as diagnostic biomarkers for CNS diseases. In addition, EVs can be engineered and fused to target cells for delivery of cargo, demonstrating the great potential of EVs as a nanocarrier platform. We review the progress of EVs as markers and drug carriers in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological diseases. The main areas include visual imaging, biomarker diagnosis and drug loading therapy for different types of CNS diseases. It is hoped that increased knowledge of EVs will facilitate their clinical translation in CNS diseases.

Temozolomide and flavonoids against glioma: from absorption and metabolism to exosomal delivery

Patients with glioblastoma multiforme and anaplastic astrocytoma are treated with temozolomide. Although it has been demonstrated that temozolomide increases GBM patient survival, it has also been connected to negative immune-related adverse effects. Numerous research investigations have shown that flavonoids have strong antioxidant and chemo-preventive effects. Consequently, it might lessen chemotherapeutic medicines' side effects while also increasing therapeutic effectiveness. The need for creating innovative, secure, and efficient drug carriers for cancer therapy has increased over time. Recent research indicates that exosomes have enormous potential to serve as carriers and cutting-edge drug delivery systems to the target cell. In recent years, researchers have been paying considerable attention to exosomes because of their favorable biodistribution, biocompatibility, and low immunogenicity. In the present review, the mechanistic information of the anti-glioblastoma effects of temozolomide and flavonoids coupled with their exosomal delivery to the targeted cell has been discussed. In addition, we discuss the safety aspects of temozolomide and flavonoids against glioma. The in-depth information of temozolomide and flavonoids action via exosomal delivery can unravel novel strategies to target Glioma.

NK cell-based tumor immunotherapy

Natural killer (NK) cells display a unique inherent ability to identify and eliminate virus-infected cells and tumor cells. They are particularly powerful for elimination of hematological cancers, and have attracted considerable interests for therapy of solid tumors. However, the treatment of solid tumors with NK cells are less effective, which can be attributed to the very complicated immunosuppressive microenvironment that may lead to the inactivation, insufficient expansion, short life, and the poor tumor infiltration of NK cells. Fortunately, the development of advanced nanotechnology has provided potential solutions to these issues, and could improve the immunotherapy efficacy of NK cells. In this review, we summarize the activation and inhibition mechanisms of NK cells in solid tumors, and the recent advances in NK cell-based tumor immunotherapy boosted by diverse nanomaterials. We also propose the challenges and opportunities for the clinical application of NK cell-based tumor immunotherapy.

Advances in Brain Tumor Therapy Based on the Magnetic Nanoparticles

Brain tumors, including primary gliomas and brain metastases, are one of the deadliest tumors because effective macromolecular antitumor drugs cannot easily penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-brain tumor barrier (BTB). Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are considered the most suitable nanocarriers for the delivery of brain tumor drugs because of their unique properties compared to other nanoparticles. Numerous preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated the potential of these nanoparticles in magnetic targeting, nuclear magnetic resonance, magnetic thermal therapy, and ultrasonic hyperthermia. To further develop and optimize MNPs for the diagnosis and treatment of brain tumors, we attempt to outline recent advances in the use of MNPs to deliver drugs, with a particular focus on their efficacy in the delivery of anti-brain tumor drugs based on magnetic targeting and low-intensity focused ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging for surgical real-time guidance, and magnetothermal and ultrasonic hyperthermia therapy. Furthermore, we summarize recent findings on the clinical application of MNPs and the research limitations that need to be addressed in clinical translation.

Nanoparticles Mediated the Diagnosis and Therapy of Glioblastoma: Bypass or Cross the Blood-Brain Barrier

Glioblastoma is one of the most aggressive central nervous system malignancies with high morbidity and mortality. Current clinical approaches, including surgical resection, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy, are limited by the difficulty of targeting brain lesions accurately, leading to disease recurrence and fatal outcomes. The lack of effective treatments has prompted researchers to continuously explore novel therapeutic strategies. In recent years, nanomedicine has made remarkable progress and expanded its application in brain drug delivery, providing a new treatment for brain tumors. Against this background, this article reviews the application and progress of nanomedicine delivery systems in brain tumors. In this paper, the mechanism of nanomaterials crossing the blood-brain barrier is summarized. Furthermore, the specific application of nanotechnology in glioblastoma is discussed in depth.

Visualization of ferroptosis in brain diseases and ferroptosis-inducing nanomedicine for glioma

A remarkable body of new data establishes that many degenerative brain diseases and some acute injury situations in the brain may be associated with ferroptosis. In recent years, ferroptosis has also attracted great interest in the cancer research community, partly because it is a unique mode of cell death distinct from other forms and thus has great therapeutic potential for brain cancer. Glioblastoma is a highly aggressive and fatal human cancer, accounting for 60% of all primary brain tumors. Despite the development of various pharmacological and surgical modalities, the survival rates of high-grade gliomas have remained poor over the past few decades. Recent evidence has revealed that ferroptosis is involved in tumor initiation, progression, and metastasis, and manipulating ferroptosis could offer a novel strategy for glioma management. Nanoparticles have been exploited as multifunctional platforms that can cross the blood-brain barrier and deliver therapeutic agents to the brain to address the pressing need for accurate visualization of ferroptosis and glioma treatment. To create efficient and durable ferroptosis inducers, many researchers have engineered nanocomposites to induce a more effective ferroptosis for therapy. In this review, we present the mechanism of ferroptosis and outline the current strategies of imaging and nanotherapy of ferroptosis in brain diseases, especially glioma. We aim to provide up-to-date information on ferroptosis and emphasize the potential clinical implications of ferroptosis for glioma diagnosis and treatment. However, regulation of ferroptosis in vivo remains challenging due to a lack of compounds.

Engineered Exosomes as Theranostic Platforms for Cancer Treatment

Tremendous progress in nanotechnology and nanomedicine has made a significant positive effect on cancer treatment by integrating multicomponents into a single multifunctional nanosized delivery system for combinatorial therapies. Although numerous nanocarriers developed so far have achieved excellent therapeutic performance in mouse models via elegant integration of chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy, their synthetic origin may still cause systemic toxicity, immunogenicity, and preferential detection or elimination by the immune system. Exosomes, endogenous nanosized particles secreted by multiple biological cells, could be absorbed by recipient cells to facilitate intercellular communication and content delivery. Therefore, exosomes have emerged as novel cargo delivery tools and attracted considerable attention for cancer diagnosis and treatment due to their innate stability, biological compatibility, and biomembrane penetration capacity. Exosome-related properties and functions have been well-documented; however, there are few reviews, to our knowledge, with a focus on the combination of exosomes and nanotechnology for the development of exosome-based theranostic platforms. To make a timely review on this hot subject of research, we summarize the basic information, isolation and functionalization methodologies, diagnostic and therapeutic potential of exosomes in various cancers with an emphasis on the description of exosome-related nanomedicine for cancer theranostics. The existing appealing challenges and outlook in exosome clinical translation are finally introduced. Advanced biotechnology and nanotechnology will definitely not only promote the integration of intrinsic advantages of natural nanosized exosomes with traditional synthetic nanomaterials for modulated precise cancer treatment but also contribute to the clinical translations of exosome-based nanomedicine as theranostic nanoplatforms.

Unveiling Novel Avenues in mTOR-Targeted Therapeutics: Advancements in Glioblastoma Treatment

The mTOR signaling pathway plays a pivotal and intricate role in the pathogenesis of glioblastoma, driving tumorigenesis and proliferation. Mutations or deletions in the PTEN gene constitutively activate the mTOR pathway by expressing growth factors EGF and PDGF, which activate their respective receptor pathways (e.g., EGFR and PDGFR). The convergence of signaling pathways, such as the PI3K-AKT pathway, intensifies the effect of mTOR activity. The inhibition of mTOR has the potential to disrupt diverse oncogenic processes and improve patient outcomes. However, the complexity of the mTOR signaling, off-target effects, cytotoxicity, suboptimal pharmacokinetics, and drug resistance of the mTOR inhibitors pose ongoing challenges in effectively targeting glioblastoma. Identifying innovative treatment strategies to address these challenges is vital for advancing the field of glioblastoma therapeutics. This review discusses the potential targets of mTOR signaling and the strategies of target-specific mTOR inhibitor development, optimized drug delivery system, and the implementation of personalized treatment approaches to mitigate the complications of mTOR inhibitors. The exploration of precise mTOR-targeted therapies ultimately offers elevated therapeutic outcomes and the development of more effective strategies to combat the deadliest form of adult brain cancer and transform the landscape of glioblastoma therapy.

Clinical Theranostics Trademark of Exosome in Glioblastoma Metastasis

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive type of cancer that has led to the death of a large population. The traditional approach fails to develop a solution for GBM's suffering life. Extensive research into tumor microenvironments (TME) indicates that TME extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a vital role in cancer development and progression. EVs are classified into microvacuoles, apoptotic bodies, and exosomes. Exosomes are the most highlighted domains in cancer research. GBM cell-derived exosomes participate in multiple cancer progression events such as immune suppression, angiogenesis, premetastatic niche formation (PMN), ECM (extracellular matrix), EMT (epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition), metastasis, cancer stem cell development and therapeutic and drug resistance. GBM exosomes also carry the signature of a glioblastoma-related status. The exosome-based GBM examination is part of the new generation of liquid biopsy. It also solved early diagnostic limitations in GBM. Traditional therapeutic approaches do not cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Exosomes are a game changer in GBM treatment and it is emerging as a potential platform for effective, efficient, and specific therapeutic development. In this review, we have explored the exosome-GBM interlink, the clinical impact of exosomes on GBM biomarkers, the therapeutics signature of exosomes in GBM, exosome-based research challenges, and future directions in GBM. Therefore, the GBM-derived exosomes offer unique therapeutic opportunities, which are currently under preclinical and clinical testing.

The Dual Effects of Exosomes on Glioma: A Comprehensive Review

Glioma is a frequently occurring type of cancer that affects the central nervous system. Despite the availability of standardized treatment options including surgical resection, concurrent radiotherapy, and adjuvant temozolomide (TMZ) therapy, the prognosis for glioma patients is often unfavorable. Exosomes act as vehicles for intercellular communication, contributing to tissue repair, immune modulation, and the transfer of metabolic cargo to recipient cells. However, the transmission of abnormal substances can also contribute to pathologic states such as cancer, metabolic diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders. The field of exosome research in oncology has seen significant advancements, with exosomes identified as dynamic modulators of tumor cell proliferation, migration, and invasion, as well as angiogenesis and drug resistance. Exosomes have negligible cytotoxicity, low immunogenicity, and small size, rendering them an ideal therapeutic candidate for glioma. This comprehensive review discusses the dual effects of exosomes in glioma, with an emphasis on their role in facilitating drug resistance. Furthermore, the clinical applications and current limitations of exosomes in glioma therapy are also discussed in detail.

Mesenchymal stem cells, as glioma exosomal immunosuppressive signal multipliers, enhance MDSCs immunosuppressive activity through the miR-21/SP1/DNMT1 positive feedback loop

BACKGROUND

The immunosuppressive microenvironment in glioma induces immunotherapy resistance and is associated with poor prognosis. Glioma-associated mesenchymal stem cells (GA-MSCs) play an important role in the formation of the immunosuppressive microenvironment, but the mechanism is still not clear.

RESULTS

We found that GA-MSCs promoted the expression of CD73, an ectonucleotidase that drives immunosuppressive microenvironment maintenance by generating adenosine, on myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) through immunosuppressive exosomal miR-21 signaling. This process was similar to the immunosuppressive signaling mediated by glioma exosomal miR-21 but more intense. Further study showed that the miR-21/SP1/DNMT1 positive feedback loop in MSCs triggered by glioma exosomal CD44 upregulated MSC exosomal miR-21 expression, amplifying the glioma exosomal immunosuppressive signal. Modified dendritic cell-derived exosomes (Dex) carrying miR-21 inhibitors could target GA-MSCs and reduce CD73 expression on MDSCs, synergizing with anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody (mAb).

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, this work reveals the critical role of MSCs in the glioma microenvironment as signal multipliers to enhance immunosuppressive signaling of glioma exosomes, and disrupting the positive feedback loop in MSCs with modified Dex could improve PD-1 blockade therapy.

Recent Progress in Extracellular Vesicle-Based Carriers for Targeted Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small, membrane-based vesicles released by cells that play a critical role in various physiological and pathological processes. They act as vehicles for transporting a variety of endogenous cargo molecules, enabling intercellular communication. Due to their natural properties, EVs have emerged as a promising "cell-free therapy" strategy for treating various diseases, including cancer. They serve as excellent carriers for different therapeutics, including nucleic acids, proteins, small molecules, and other nanomaterials. Modifying or engineering EVs can improve the efficacy, targeting, specificity, and biocompatibility of EV-based therapeutics for cancer therapy. In this review, we comprehensively outline the biogenesis, isolation, and methodologies of EVs, as well as their biological functions. We then focus on specific applications of EVs as drug carriers in cancer therapy by citing prominent recent studies. Additionally, we discuss the opportunities and challenges for using EVs as pharmaceutical drug delivery vehicles. Ultimately, we aim to provide theoretical and technical support for the development of EV-based carriers for cancer treatment.

Nanoparticle Strategies to Improve the Delivery of Anticancer Drugs across the Blood-Brain Barrier to Treat Brain Tumors

Primary brain and central nervous system (CNS) tumors are a diverse group of neoplasms that occur within the brain and spinal cord. Although significant advances in our understanding of the intricate biological underpinnings of CNS neoplasm tumorigenesis and progression have been made, the translation of these discoveries into effective therapies has been stymied by the unique challenges presented by these tumors' exquisitely sensitive location and the body's own defense mechanisms (e.g., the brain-CSF barrier and blood-brain barrier), which normally protect the CNS from toxic insult. These barriers effectively prevent the delivery of therapeutics to the site of disease. To overcome these obstacles, new methods for therapeutic delivery are being developed, with one such approach being the utilization of nanoparticles. Here, we will cover the current state of the field with a particular focus on the challenges posed by the BBB, the different nanoparticle classes which are under development for targeted CNS tumor therapeutics delivery, and strategies which have been developed to bypass the BBB and enable effective therapeutics delivery to the site of disease.

Emerging extracellular vesicle-based carriers for glioblastoma diagnosis and therapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) treatment is still a big clinical challenge because of its highly malignant, invasive, and lethal characteristics. After treatment with the conventional therapeutic paradigm of surgery combined with radio- and chemotherapy, patients bearing GBMs generally exhibit a poor prognosis, with high mortality and a high disability rate. The main reason is the existence of the formidable blood-brain barrier (BBB), aggressive growth, and the infiltration nature of GBMs. Especially, the BBB suppresses the delivery of imaging and therapeutic agents to lesion sites, and thus this leads to difficulties in achieving a timely diagnosis and treatment. Recent studies have demonstrated that extracellular vesicles (EVs) exhibit favorable merits including good biocompatibility, a strong drug loading capacity, long circulation time, good BBB crossing efficiency, specific targeting to lesion sites, and high efficiency in the delivery of a variety of cargos for GBM therapy. Importantly, EVs inherit physiological and pathological molecules from the source cells, which are ideal biomarkers for molecularly tracking the malignant progression of GBMs. Herein, we start by introducing the pathophysiology and physiology of GBMs, followed by presenting the biological functions of EVs in GBMs with a special focus on their role as biomarkers for GBM diagnosis and as messengers in the modulation of the GBM microenvironment. Furthermore, we provide an update on the recent progress of using EVs in biology, functionality, and isolation applications. More importantly, we systematically summarize the most recent advances of EV-based carriers for GBM therapy by delivering different drugs including gene/RNA-based drugs, chemotherapy drugs, imaging agents, and combinatory drugs. Lastly, we point out the challenges and prospects of future research on EVs for diagnosing and treating GBMs. We hope this review will stimulate interest from researchers with different backgrounds and expedite the progress of GBM treatment paradigms.

Cell-Membrane-Coated and Cell-Penetrating Peptide-Conjugated Trimagnetic Nanoparticles for Targeted Magnetic Hyperthermia of Prostate Cancer Cells

Prostate malignancy represents the second leading cause of cancer-specific death among the male population worldwide. Herein, enhanced intracellular magnetic fluid hyperthermia is applied in vitro to treat prostate cancer (PCa) cells with minimum invasiveness and toxicity and highly specific targeting. We designed and optimized novel shape-anisotropic magnetic core-shell-shell nanoparticles (i.e., trimagnetic nanoparticles - TMNPs) with significant magnetothermal conversion following an exchange coupling effect to an external alternating magnetic field (AMF). The functional properties of the best candidate in terms of heating efficiency (i.e., Fe₃O₄@Mn_0.5Zn_0.5Fe₂O₄@CoFe₂O₄) were exploited following surface decoration with PCa cell membranes (CM) and/or LN1 cell-penetrating peptide (CPP). We demonstrated that the combination of biomimetic dual CM-CPP targeting and AMF responsiveness significantly induces caspase 9-mediated apoptosis of PCa cells. Furthermore, a downregulation of the cell cycle progression markers and a decrease of the migration rate in surviving cells were observed in response to the TMNP-assisted magnetic hyperthermia, suggesting a reduction in cancer cell aggressiveness.

Therapeutic and Diagnostic Potential of Exosomes as Drug Delivery Systems in Brain Cancer

Cancer is designated as one of the principal causes of mortality universally. Among different types of cancer, brain cancer remains the most challenging one due to its aggressiveness, the ineffective permeation ability of drugs through the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and drug resistance. To overcome the aforementioned issues in fighting brain cancer, there is an imperative need for designing novel therapeutic approaches. Exosomes have been proposed as prospective "Trojan horse" nanocarriers of anticancer theranostics owing to their biocompatibility, increased stability, permeability, negligible immunogenicity, prolonged circulation time, and high loading capacity. This review provides a comprehensive discussion on the biological properties, physicochemical characteristics, isolation methods, biogenesis and internalization of exosomes, while it emphasizes their therapeutic and diagnostic potential as drug vehicle systems in brain cancer, highlighting recent advances in the research field. A comparison of the biological activity and therapeutic effectiveness of several exosome-encapsulated cargo including drugs and biomacromolecules underlines their great supremacy over the non-exosomal encapsulated cargo in the delivery, accumulation, and biological potency. Various studies on cell lines and animals give prominence to exosome-based nanoparticles (NPs) as a promising and alternative approach in the management of brain cancer.

Living Cells and Cell-Derived Vesicles: A Trojan Horse Technique for Brain Delivery

Brain diseases remain a significant global healthcare burden. Conventional pharmacological therapy for brain diseases encounters huge challenges because of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) limiting the delivery of therapeutics into the brain parenchyma. To address this issue, researchers have explored various types of drug delivery systems. Cells and cell derivatives have attracted increasing interest as "Trojan horse" delivery systems for brain diseases, owing to their superior biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and BBB penetration properties. This review provided an overview of recent advancements in cell- and cell-derivative-based delivery systems for the diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases. Additionally, it discussed the challenges and potential solutions for clinical translation.

Engineered exosomes from different sources for cancer-targeted therapy

Exosome is a subgroup of extracellular vesicles, which has been serving as an efficient therapeutic tool for various diseases. Engineered exosomes are the sort of exosomes modified with surface decoration and internal therapeutic molecules. After appropriate modification, engineered exosomes are able to deliver antitumor drugs to tumor sites efficiently and precisely with fewer treatment-related adverse effects. However, there still exist many challenges for the clinical translation of engineered exosomes. For instance, what sources and modification strategies could endow exosomes with the most efficient antitumor activity is still poorly understood. Additionally, how to choose appropriately engineered exosomes in different antitumor therapies is another unresolved problem. In this review, we summarized the characteristics of engineered exosomes, especially the spatial and temporal properties. Additionally, we concluded the recent advances in engineered exosomes in the cancer fields, including the sources, isolation technologies, modification strategies, and labeling and imaging methods of engineered exosomes. Furthermore, the applications of engineered exosomes in different antitumor therapies were summarized, such as photodynamic therapy, gene therapy, and immunotherapy. Consequently, the above provides the cancer researchers in this community with the latest ideas on engineered exosome modification and new direction of new drug development, which is prospective to accelerate the clinical translation of engineered exosomes for cancer-targeted therapy.

Research advances in the understanding of how exosomes regulate ferroptosis in cancer

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that can release different bioactive substances to affect tumor cells and cell death pathways. As an important mediator of cell communication, exosomes participate in the occurrence and development of a variety of diseases. Ferroptosis, one of the newly defined forms of regulated cell death, is characterized by massive accumulation of iron ions and lipid peroxidation. An increasing number of studies have shown that ferroptosis plays an important role in malignant tumors. Moreover, exosomes have been recognized for their potential in cancer therapy based on ferroptosis. To further describe how could exosomes regulate ferroptosis in cancer and provide better understanding of the mechanisms involved, this paper reviews the definition as well as the underlying molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis, including iron metabolism, amino acid metabolism, lipid metabolism and so on. Then, we illustrated how could exosomes regulate the ferroptosis pathway and suggested their promising potential as a novel tumor therapy for cancer patients. Finally, we described the perspectives of ferroptosis by exosomes in tumor treatment. Therefore, exosomes have the potential to regulate ferroptosis in clinical cancer treatment.

Synergistic Functional Nanomedicine Enhances Ferroptosis Therapy for Breast Tumors by a Blocking Defensive Redox System

The upregulation of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) redox systems inside tumor cells provides a powerful shelter against lipid peroxidation (LPO), impeding ferroptosis-induced antitumor responses. To solve this issue, we report a strategy to block redox systems and enhance ferroptotic cancer cell death based on a layered double hydroxide (LDH) nanoplatform (siR/IONs@LDH) co-loaded with ferroptosis agent iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs) and the DHODH inhibitor (siR). siR/IONs@LDH is able to simultaneously release IONs and siR in a pH-responsive manner, efficiently generate toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) via an Fe²⁺-mediated Fenton reaction, and synergistically induce cancer cell death upon the acceleration of LPO accumulation. In vivo therapeutic evaluations demonstrate that this nanomedicine has excellent performance for tumor growth inhibition without any detectable side effects. This work thus provides a new insight into nanomaterial-mediated tumor ferroptosis therapy.

Nucleic acid drug vectors for diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases

Nucleic acid drugs have the advantages of rich target selection, simple in design, good and enduring effect. They have been demonstrated to have irreplaceable superiority in brain disease treatment, while vectors are a decisive factor in therapeutic efficacy. Strict physiological barriers, such as degradation and clearance in circulation, blood-brain barrier, cellular uptake, endosome/lysosome barriers, release, obstruct the delivery of nucleic acid drugs to the brain by the vectors. Nucleic acid drugs against a single target are inefficient in treating brain diseases of complex pathogenesis. Differences between individual patients lead to severe uncertainties in brain disease treatment with nucleic acid drugs. In this Review, we briefly summarize the classification of nucleic acid drugs. Next, we discuss physiological barriers during drug delivery and universal coping strategies and introduce the application methods of these universal strategies to nucleic acid drug vectors. Subsequently, we explore nucleic acid drug-based multidrug regimens for the combination treatment of brain diseases and the construction of the corresponding vectors. In the following, we address the feasibility of patient stratification and personalized therapy through diagnostic information from medical imaging and the manner of introducing contrast agents into vectors. Finally, we take a perspective on the future feasibility and remaining challenges of vector-based integrated diagnosis and gene therapy for brain diseases.

Implications of Crosstalk between Exosome-Mediated Ferroptosis and Diseases for Pathogenesis and Treatment

Ferroptosis is a type of iron-dependent cell death caused by ferrous iron overload, reactive oxygen species generation through the Fenton reaction, and lipid peroxidation, leading to antioxidative system dysfunction and, ultimately, cell membrane damage. The functional role of ferroptosis in human physiology and pathology is considered a cause or consequence of diseases. Circulating exosomes mediate intercellular communication and organ crosstalk. They not only transport functional proteins and nucleic acids derived from parental cells but also serve as vehicles for the targeted delivery of exogenous cargo. Exosomes regulate ferroptosis by delivering the biological material to the recipient cell, affecting ferroptosis-related proteins, or transporting ferritin-bound iron out of the cell. This review discusses pathogenesis mediated by endogenous exosomes and the therapeutic potential of exogenous exosomes for ferroptosis-related diseases. In addition, this review explores the role of exosome-mediated ferroptosis in ferroptosis-related diseases with an emphasis on strategies for engineering exosomes for ferroptosis therapy.

Immune Exosomes Loading Self-Assembled Nanomicelles Traverse the Blood-Brain Barrier for Chemo-immunotherapy against Glioblastoma

Effective drug delivery and prevention of postoperative recurrence are significant challenges for current glioblastoma (GBM) treatment. Poor drug delivery is mainly due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and postoperative recurrence is primarily due to the resistance of GBM cells to chemotherapeutic drugs and the presence of an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Herein, a biomimetic nanodrug delivery platform based on endogenous exosomes that could efficiently target the brain without targeting modifications and co-deliver pure drug nanomicelles and immune adjuvants for safe and efficient chemo-immunotherapy against GBM is prepared. Inspired by the self-assembly technology of small molecules, tanshinone IIA (TanIIA) and glycyrrhizic acid (GL), which are the inhibitors of signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), self-assembled to form TanIIA-GL nanomicelles (TGM). Endogenous serum exosomes are selected to coat the pure drug nanomicelles, and the CpG oligonucleotides, agonists of Toll-like receptor 9, are anchored on the exosome membrane to obtain immune exosomes loaded with TCM self-assembled nanomicelles (CpG-EXO/TGM). Our results demonstrate that CpG-EXO/TGM can bind free transferrin in blood, prolong blood circulation, and maintain intact structures when traversing the BBB and targeting GBM cells. In the GBM microenvironment, the strong anti-GBM effect of CpG-EXO/TGM is mainly attributed to two factors: (i) highly efficient uptake by GBM cells and sufficient intracellular release of drugs to induce apoptosis and (ii) stimulation of dendritic cell maturation and induction of tumor-associated macrophages polarization by CpG oligonucleotides to generate anti-GBM immune responses. Further research found that CpG-EXO/TGM can not only produce better efficacy in combination with temozolomide but also prevent a postoperative recurrence.

The role of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles as a novel treatment approach in glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiform (GBM) is the most prevalent and deadliest primary brain malignancy in adults, whose median survival rate does not exceed 15 months after diagnosis. The conventional treatment of GBM, including maximal safe surgery followed by chemotherapy and radiotherapy, usually cannot lead to notable improvements in the disease prognosis and the tumor always recurs. Many GBM characteristics make its treatment challenging. The most important ones are the impermeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), preventing chemotherapeutic drugs from reaching in adequate amounts to the tumor site, intratumoral heterogeneity, and roles of glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs). To overcome these barriers, the recently-developed drug-carrying approach using nanoparticles (NPs) may play a significant role. NPs are tiny particles, usually less than 100 nm showing various diagnostic and therapeutic medical applications. In this regard, cell membrane (CM)-coated NPs demonstrated several promising effects in GBM in pre-clinical studies. They benefit from fewer adverse effects due to their specific targeting of tumor cells, biocompatibility because of their CM surfaces, prolonged half-life, easy penetrating of the BBB, and escaping from the immune reaction, making them an attractive option for GBM treatment. To date, CM-coated NPs have been applied to enhance the effectiveness of major therapeutic approaches in GBM treatment, including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, gene therapy, and photo-based therapies. Despite the promising results in pre-clinical studies regarding the effectiveness of CM-coated NPs in GBM, significant barriers like high expenses, complex preparation processes, and unknown long-term effects still hinder its mass production for the clinic. In this regard, the current study aims to provide an overview of different characteristics of CM-coated NPs and comprehensively investigate their application as a novel treatment approach in GBM.

Ferroptosis-based drug delivery system as a new therapeutic opportunity for brain tumors

The brain tumor is a kind of malignant tumor with brutal treatment, high recurrence rate, and poor prognosis, and the incidence and death rate is increasing yearly. Surgery is often used to remove the primary tumor, supplemented by radiotherapy and chemotherapy, which have highly toxic side effects. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore new strategies, methods, and technologies that can genuinely improve the treatment of brain tumors. Ferroptosis differs from traditional apoptosis's morphological and biochemical characteristics, and ferroptosis possesses its unique characteristics and mechanisms, opening up a new field of ferroptosis treatment for cancer. It has been found that there is a close relationship between ferroptosis and brain tumors, and a novel nano-drug delivery system based on ferroptosis has been used for the ferroptosis treatment of brain tumors with remarkable effects. This review firstly analyzes the characteristics of ferroptosis, summarizes the mechanism of its occurrence and some factors that can be involved in the regulation of ferroptosis, introduces the potential link between ferroptosis and brain tumors, and clarifies the feasibility of ferroptosis in the treatment of brain tumors. It then presents the ferroptosis nano drug delivery systems developed under different metabolic pathways for ferroptosis treatment of brain tumors. Finally, it summarizes the current problems and solutions of ferroptosis nano drugs for brain tumor treatment, aiming to provide a reference for developing ferroptosis nano drugs against brain tumors.

Overcoming AZD9291 Resistance and Metastasis of NSCLC via Ferroptosis and Multitarget Interference by Nanocatalytic Sensitizer Plus AHP-DRI-12

The acquired resistance to Osimertinib (AZD9291) greatly limits the clinical benefit of patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), whereas AZD9291-resistant NSCLCs are prone to metastasis. It's challenging to overcome AZD9291 resistance and suppress metastasis of NSCLC simultaneously. Here, a nanocatalytic sensitizer (VF/S/A@CaP) is proposed to deliver Vitamin c (Vc)-Fe(II), si-OTUB2, ASO-MALAT1, resulting in efficient inhibition of tumor growth and metastasis of NSCLC by synergizing with AHP-DRI-12, an anti-hematogenous metastasis inhibitor by blocking the amyloid precursor protein (APP)/death receptor 6 (DR6) interaction designed by our lab. Fe²⁺ released from Vc-Fe(II) generates cytotoxic hydroxyl radicals (•OH) through Fenton reaction. Subsequently, glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) is consumed to sensitize AZD9291-resistant NSCLCs with high mesenchymal state to ferroptosis due to the glutathione (GSH) depletion caused by Vc/dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) conversion. By screening NSCLC patients' samples, metastasis-related targets (OTUB2, LncRNA MALAT1) are confirmed. Accordingly, the dual-target knockdown plus AHP-DRI-12 significantly suppresses the metastasis of AZD9291-resistant NSCLC. Such modality leads to 91.39% tumor inhibition rate in patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models. Collectively, this study highlights the vulnerability to ferroptosis of AZD9291-resistant tumors and confirms the potential of this nanocatalytic-medicine-based modality to overcome critical AZD9291 resistance and inhibit metastasis of NSCLC simultaneously.

Opportunities and challenges related to ferroptosis in glioma and neuroblastoma

A newly identified form of cell death known as ferroptosis is characterized by the peroxidation of lipids in response to iron. Rapid progress in research on ferroptosis in glioma and neuroblastoma has promoted the exploitation of ferroptosis in related therapy. This manuscript provides a review of the findings on ferroptosis-related therapy in glioblastoma and neuroblastoma and outlines the mechanisms involved in ferroptosis in glioma and neuroblastoma. We summarize some recent data on traditional drugs, natural compounds and nanomedicines used as ferroptosis inducers in glioma and neuroblastoma, as well as some bioinformatic analyses of genes involved in ferroptosis. Moreover, we summarize some data on the associations of ferroptosis with the tumor immunotherapy and TMZ drug resistance. Finally, we discuss future directions for ferroptosis research in glioma and neuroblastoma and currently unresolved issues.

Mesoporous Silica Promotes Osteogenesis of Human Adipose-Derived Stem Cells Identified by a High-Throughput Microfluidic Chip Assay

Silicon-derived biomaterials are conducive to regulating the fate of osteo-related stem cells, while their effects on the osteogenic differentiation of human adipose-derived stem cells (hADSCs) remain inconclusive. Mesoporous silica (mSiO₂) is synthesized in a facile route that exhibited the capability of promoting osteogenic differentiation of hADSCs. The metabolism of SiO₂ in cells is proposed according to the colocalization fluorescence analysis between lysosomes and nanoparticles. The released silicon elements promote osteogenic differentiation. The detection of secretory proteins through numerous parallel experiments performed via a microfluidic chip confirms the positive effect of SiO₂ on the osteogenic differentiation of hADSCs. Moreover, constructed with superparamagnetic iron oxide (Fe₃O₄), the magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) of Fe₃O₄@mSiO₂ endow the cells with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) properties. The MNP-regulated osteogenic differentiation of autologous adipose-derived stem cells provides considerable clinical application prospects for stem cell therapy of bone tissue repair with an effective reduction in immune rejection.

Ferroptosis and Its Potential Role in Glioma: From Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutic Opportunities

Glioma is the most common intracranial malignant tumor, and the current main standard treatment option is a combination of tumor surgical resection, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Due to the terribly poor five-year survival rate of patients with gliomas and the high recurrence rate of gliomas, some new and efficient therapeutic strategies are expected. Recently, ferroptosis, as a new form of cell death, has played a significant role in the treatment of gliomas. Specifically, studies have revealed key processes of ferroptosis, including iron overload in cells, occurrence of lipid peroxidation, inactivation of cysteine/glutathione antiporter system Xc- (xCT) and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4). In the present review, we summarized the molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis and introduced the application and challenges of ferroptosis in the development and treatment of gliomas. Moreover, we highlighted the therapeutic opportunities of manipulating ferroptosis to improve glioma treatments, which may improve the clinical outcome.