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Wu J, Wu Y, Tang H, Li W, Zhao Z, Shi X, Jiang H, Yu L, Deng H. Self-Adapting Biomass Hydrogel Embodied with miRNA Immunoregulation and Long-Term Bacterial Eradiation for Synergistic Chronic Wound Therapy. ACS NANO 2024; 18:18379-18392. [PMID: 38953692 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.4c02736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
Chronic wound rescue is critical for diabetic patients but is challenging to achieve with a specific and long-term strategy. The prolonged bacterial inflammation is particularly prevalent in hyperglycemia-induced wounds, usually leading to severe tissue damage. Such a trend could further suffer from an environmental suitability provided by macrophages for persisting Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and even deteriorate by their mutual reinforcement. However, the strategy of both suppressing bacteria growth and immunoreprogramming the inflammatory type of macrophages to break their vicious harm to wound healing is still lacking. Here, a self-adapting biomass carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC) hydrogel comprising immunomodulatory nanoparticles is reported to achieve Gram-negative/Gram-positive bacteria elimination and anti-inflammatory cytokines induction to ameliorate the cutaneous microenvironment. Mechanistically, antibacterial peptides and CMCs synergistically result in a long-term inhibition against methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) over a period of 7 days, and miR-301a reprograms the M2 macrophage via the PTEN/PI3Kγ/mTOR signaling pathway, consequently mitigating inflammation and promoting angiogenesis for diabetic wound healing in rats. In this vein, immunoregulatory hydrogel is a promising all-biomass dressing ensuring biocompatibility, providing a perspective to regenerate cutaneous damaged tissue, and repairing chronic wounds on skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Wu
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Hubei Key Laboratory of Autonomic Nervous System Modulation, Cardiac Autonomic Nervous System Research Center of Wuhan University, Taikang Center for Life and Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Wuhan University, Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Yang Wu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Biomass Resource Chemistry and Environmental Biotechnology, Hubei Engineering Center of Natural Polymers-Based Medical Materials, School of Resource and Environmental Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Heng Tang
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers, Ministry of Education, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Wei Li
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Biomass Resource Chemistry and Environmental Biotechnology, Hubei Engineering Center of Natural Polymers-Based Medical Materials, School of Resource and Environmental Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Ze Zhao
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Biomass Resource Chemistry and Environmental Biotechnology, Hubei Engineering Center of Natural Polymers-Based Medical Materials, School of Resource and Environmental Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Xiaowen Shi
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Biomass Resource Chemistry and Environmental Biotechnology, Hubei Engineering Center of Natural Polymers-Based Medical Materials, School of Resource and Environmental Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Hong Jiang
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Hubei Key Laboratory of Autonomic Nervous System Modulation, Cardiac Autonomic Nervous System Research Center of Wuhan University, Taikang Center for Life and Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Wuhan University, Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Lilei Yu
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Hubei Key Laboratory of Autonomic Nervous System Modulation, Cardiac Autonomic Nervous System Research Center of Wuhan University, Taikang Center for Life and Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Wuhan University, Hubei Key Laboratory of Cardiology, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Hongbing Deng
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Biomass Resource Chemistry and Environmental Biotechnology, Hubei Engineering Center of Natural Polymers-Based Medical Materials, School of Resource and Environmental Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China
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Bellavita R, Braccia S, Imbò LE, Grieco P, Galdiero S, D'Auria G, Falanga A, Falcigno L. Exploring Fe(III) coordination and membrane interaction of a siderophore-peptide conjugate: Enhancing synergistically the antimicrobial activity. J Inorg Biochem 2024; 259:112658. [PMID: 38964199 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2024.112658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Revised: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
Many microbes produce siderophores, which are extremely potent weapons capable of stealing iron ions from human tissues, fluids and cells and transferring them into bacteria through their appropriate porins. We have recently designed a multi-block molecule, each block having a dedicated role. The first component is an antimicrobial peptide, whose good effectiveness against some bacterial strains was gradually improved through interactive sequence modifications. Connected to this block is a flexible bio-band, also optimized in length, which terminates in a hydroxyamide unit, a strong metal binder. Thus, the whole molecule brings together two pieces that work synergistically to fight infection. To understand if the peptide unit, although modified with a long tail, preserves the structure and therefore the antimicrobial activity, and to characterize the mechanism of interaction with bio-membrane models mimicking Gram-negative membranes, we performed a set of fluorescence-based experiments and circular dichroism studies, which further supported our design of a combination of two different entities working synergistically. The chelating activity and iron(III) binding of the peptide was confirmed by iron(III) paramagnetic NMR analyses, and through a competitive assay with ethylenediamine-tetra acetic acid by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy. The complexation parameters, the Michaelis constant K, and the number of sites n, evaluated with spectrophotometric techniques are confirmed by Fe(III) paramagnetic NMR analyses here reported. In conclusion, we showed that the coupling of antimicrobial capabilities with iron-trapping capabilities works well in the treatment of infectious diseases caused by Gram-negative pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa Bellavita
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples 'Federico II', Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Simone Braccia
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples 'Federico II', Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Emiliano Imbò
- Department of Agricultural Science, University of Naples 'Federico II', Via Università 100, Portici, 80055 Portici, Italy
| | - Paolo Grieco
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples 'Federico II', Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Stefania Galdiero
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples 'Federico II', Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Gabriella D'Auria
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples 'Federico II', Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Annarita Falanga
- Department of Agricultural Science, University of Naples 'Federico II', Via Università 100, Portici, 80055 Portici, Italy.
| | - Lucia Falcigno
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples 'Federico II', Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
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Guerra MES, Vieira B, Calazans APCT, Destro GV, Melo K, Rodrigues E, Waz NT, Girardello R, Darrieux M, Converso TR. Recent advances in the therapeutic potential of cathelicidins. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1405760. [PMID: 38989014 PMCID: PMC11233757 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1405760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The alarming increase in antimicrobial resistance in the last decades has prompted the search for alternatives to control infectious diseases. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) represent a heterogeneous class of molecules with ample antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal effects. They can be found in many organisms, including all classes of vertebrates, providing a valuable source of new antimicrobial agents. The unique properties of AMPs make it harder for microbes develop resistance, while their immunomodulatory properties and target diversity reinforce their translational use in multiple diseases, from autoimmune disorders to different types of cancer. The latest years have witnessed a vast number of studies evaluating the use of AMPs in therapy, with many progressing to clinical trials. The present review explores the recent developments in the medicinal properties of cathelicidins, a vast family of AMPs with potent antimicrobial and immunomodulatory effects. Cathelicidins from several organisms have been tested in disease models of viral and bacterial infections, inflammatory diseases, and tumors, with encouraging results. Combining nanomaterials with active, natural antimicrobial peptides, including LL-37 and synthetic analogs like ceragenins, leads to the creation of innovative nanoagents with significant clinical promise. However, there are still important limitations, such as the toxicity of many cathelicidins to healthy host cells and low stability in vivo. The recent advances in nanomaterials and synthetic biology may help overcome the current limitations, enabling the use of cathelicidins in future therapeutics. Furthermore, a better understanding of the mechanisms of cathelicidin action in vivo and their synergy with other host molecules will contribute to the development of safer, highly effective therapies.
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Weaver DF. Endogenous Antimicrobial-Immunomodulatory Molecules: Networking Biomolecules of Innate Immunity. Chembiochem 2024; 25:e202400089. [PMID: 38658319 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202400089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 04/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Endogenous antimicrobial-immunomodulatory molecules (EAIMs) are essential to immune-mediated human health and evolution. Conventionally, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been regarded as the dominant endogenous antimicrobial molecule; however, AMPs are not sufficient to account for the full spectrum of antimicrobial-immunomodulatory duality occurring within the human body. The threat posed by pathogenic microbes is pervasive with the capacity for widespread impact across many organ systems and multiple biochemical pathways; accordingly, the host needs the capacity to react with an equally diverse response. This can be attained by having EAIMs that traverse the full range of molecular size (small to large molecules) and structural diversity (including molecules other than peptides). This review identifies multiple molecules (peptide/protein, lipid, carbohydrate, nucleic acid, small organic molecule, and metallic cation) as EAIMs and discusses the possibility of cooperative, additive effects amongst the various EAIM classes during the host response to a microbial assault. This comprehensive consideration of the full molecular diversity of EAIMs enables the conclusion that EAIMs constitute a previously uncatalogued structurally diverse and collectively underappreciated immuno-active group of integrated molecular responders within the innate immune system's first line of defence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald F Weaver
- Departments of Chemistry and Medicine, University of Toronto, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, M5Y 0S8, Canada
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Luo XY, Hu CM, Yin Q, Zhang XM, Liu ZZ, Zhou CK, Zhang JG, Chen W, Yang YJ. Dual-Mechanism Peptide SR25 has Broad Antimicrobial Activity and Potential Application for Healing Bacteria-infected Diabetic Wounds. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024:e2401793. [PMID: 38874469 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202401793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Revised: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
The rise of antibiotic resistance poses a significant public health crisis, particularly due to limited antimicrobial options for the treatment of infections with Gram-negative pathogens. Here, an antimicrobial peptide (AMP) SR25 is characterized, which effectively kills both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria through a unique dual-targeting mechanism without detectable resistance. Meanwhile, an SR25-functionalized hydrogel is developed for the efficient treatment of infected diabetic wounds. SR25 is obtained through genome mining from an uncultured bovine enteric actinomycete named Nonomuraea Jilinensis sp. nov. Investigations reveal that SR25 has two independent cellular targets, disrupting bacterial membrane integrity and restraining the activity of succinate:quinone oxidoreductase (SQR). In a diabetic mice wound infection model, the SR25-incorporated hydrogel exhibits high efficacy against mixed infections of Escherichia coli (E. coli) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), accelerating wound healing. Overall, these findings demonstrate the therapeutic potential of SR25 and highlight the value of mining drugs with multiple mechanisms from uncultured animal commensals for combating challenging bacterial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Yue Luo
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, P. R. China
| | - Chun-Mei Hu
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, P. R. China
| | - Qi Yin
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Mei Zhang
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, P. R. China
| | - Zhen-Zhen Liu
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, P. R. China
| | - Cheng-Kai Zhou
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, P. R. China
| | - Jian-Gang Zhang
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, P. R. China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, P. R. China
| | - Yong-Jun Yang
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130062, P. R. China
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Ma X, Aminov R, Franco OL, de la Fuente-Nunez C, Wang G, Wang J. Editorial: Antimicrobial peptides and their druggability, bio-safety, stability, and resistance. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1425952. [PMID: 38846567 PMCID: PMC11154904 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1425952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Xuanxuan Ma
- Innovative Team of Antimicrobial Peptides and Alternatives to Antibiotics, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Gene Engineering Laboratory, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing, China
| | - Rustam Aminov
- The School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Octavio Luiz Franco
- S-Inova Biotech, Universidade Católica Dom Bosco, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
- Centro de Análises Proteômicas e Bioquímicas Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Genômicas e Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Cesar de la Fuente-Nunez
- Machine Biology Group, Departments of Psychiatry and Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, Institute for Biomedical Informatics, Institute for Translational Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Departments of Bioengineering and Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Penn Institute for Computational Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Guangshun Wang
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, United States
| | - Jianhua Wang
- Innovative Team of Antimicrobial Peptides and Alternatives to Antibiotics, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Gene Engineering Laboratory, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing, China
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Bing C, Mengjuan A, Xinyu M, Chixin Z, Xinyao T, Yan S, Zhi L. Efflux pump inhibitor chlorpromazine effectively increases the susceptibility of Escherichia coli to antimicrobial peptide Brevinin-2CE. Future Microbiol 2024. [PMID: 38683168 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2023-0272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Aim: The response of E. coli ATCC8739 to Brevinin-2CE (B2CE) was evaluated as a strategy to prevent the development of antimicrobial peptide (AMP)-resistant bacteria. Methods: Gene expression levels were detected by transcriptome sequencing and RT-PCR. Target genes were knocked out using CRISPR-Cas9. MIC was measured to evaluate strain resistance. Results: Expression of acrZ and sugE were increased with B2CE stimulation. ATCC8739ΔacrZ and ATCC8739ΔsugE showed twofold and fourfold increased sensitivity, respectively. The survival rate of ATCC8739 was reduced in the presence of B2CE/chlorpromazine (CPZ). Combinations of other AMPs with CPZ also showed antibacterial effects. Conclusion: The results indicate that combinations of AMPs/efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) may be a potential approach to combat resistant bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cao Bing
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, 710119, PR China
| | - An Mengjuan
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, 710119, PR China
| | - Ma Xinyu
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, 710119, PR China
| | - Zhu Chixin
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, 710119, PR China
| | - Tan Xinyao
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, 710119, PR China
| | - Sun Yan
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, 710119, PR China
| | - Li Zhi
- College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, 710119, PR China
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Souza T, Mello E, Taveira G, Moreira F, Seabra S, Carvalho A, Gomes V. Synergistic action of synthetic peptides and amphotericin B causes disruption of the plasma membrane and cell wall in Candida albicans. Biosci Rep 2024; 44:BSR20232075. [PMID: 38563086 PMCID: PMC11016531 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20232075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The objective of this work was to evaluate the combination of synthetic peptides based on the γ-core motif of defensin PvD1 with amphotericin B (AmB) at different concentrations against Candida albicans. We applied the checkerboard assay using different concentrations of the commercial drug AmB and the synthetic peptides γ31-45PvD1++ and γ33-41PvD1++ against C. albicans, aiming to find combinations with synergistic interactions. Between these two interactions involving γ31-45PvD1++ and AmB, an additive effect was observed. One such interaction occurred at concentrations of 0.009 µM of peptide γ31-45PvD1++ and 13.23 µM of AmB and another condition of 0.019 µM of peptide γ31-45PvD1++ and 6.61 µM of AmB. The other two concentrations of the interaction showed a synergistic effect in the combination of synthetic peptide γ31-45PvD1++ and AmB, where the concentrations were 1.40 µM peptide γ31-45PvD1++ and 0.004 µM AmB and 0.70 µM γ31-45PvD1++ peptide and 0.002 µM AmB. We proceeded with analysis of the mechanism of action involving synergistic effects. This examination unveiled a range of impactful outcomes, including the impairment of mitochondrial functionality, compromise of cell wall integrity, DNA degradation, and a consequential decline in cell viability. We also observed that both synergistic combinations were capable of causing damage to the plasma membrane and cell wall, causing leakage of intracellular components. This discovery demonstrates for the first time that the synergistic combinations found between the synthetic peptide γ31-45PvD1++ and AmB have an antifungal effect against C. albicans, acting on the integrity of the plasma membrane and cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thayna A.M. Souza
- Laboratório de Fisiologia e Bioquímica de Microrganismos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, CEP: 28013-602, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
| | - Erica O. Mello
- Laboratório de Fisiologia e Bioquímica de Microrganismos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, CEP: 28013-602, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
| | - Gabriel B. Taveira
- Laboratório de Fisiologia e Bioquímica de Microrganismos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, CEP: 28013-602, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
| | - Felipe F. Moreira
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro (UENF), Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
| | - Sergio Henrique Seabra
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro (UENF), Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
| | - André O. Carvalho
- Laboratório de Fisiologia e Bioquímica de Microrganismos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, CEP: 28013-602, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
| | - Valdirene M. Gomes
- Laboratório de Fisiologia e Bioquímica de Microrganismos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, CEP: 28013-602, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
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Liu JH, Liu YY, Shen YB, Yang J, Walsh TR, Wang Y, Shen J. Plasmid-mediated colistin-resistance genes: mcr. Trends Microbiol 2024; 32:365-378. [PMID: 38008597 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2023.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2023] [Revised: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023]
Abstract
Colistin is regarded as a last-line drug against serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterial pathogens. Therefore, the emergence of mobile colistin resistance (mcr) genes has attracted global concern and led to policy changes for the use of colistin in food animals across many countries. Currently, the distribution, function, mechanism of action, transmission vehicles, origin of mcr, and new treatment strategies against MCR-producing pathogens have been extensively studied. Here we review the prevalence, structure and function of mcr, the fitness cost and persistence of mcr-carrying plasmids, the impact of MCR on host immune response, as well as the control strategies to combat mcr-mediated colistin resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Hua Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmaceutics Development and Safety Evaluation, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Yi-Yun Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmaceutics Development and Safety Evaluation, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Ying-Bo Shen
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jun Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmaceutics Development and Safety Evaluation, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | | | - Yang Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Jianzhong Shen
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
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Guo Y, Sun Y, Wu H, Lu J, Lin Y, Zhu J, Lai M, Zhang M, Wang J, Zheng J. Protective effect and mechanism of nanoantimicrobial peptide ND-C14 against Streptococcus pneumoniae infection. World J Emerg Med 2024; 15:28-34. [PMID: 38188557 PMCID: PMC10765074 DOI: 10.5847/wjem.j.1920-8642.2024.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) is a common pathogen that causes bacterial pneumonia. However, with increasing bacterial resistance, there is an urgent need to develop new drugs to treat S. pneumoniae infections. Nanodefensin with a 14-carbon saturated fatty acid (ND-C14) is a novel nanoantimicrobial peptide designed by modifying myristic acid at the C-terminus of human α-defensin 5 (HD5) via an amide bond. However, it is unclear whether ND-C14 is effective against lung infections caused by S. pneumoniae. METHODS In vitro, three groups were established, including the control group, and the HD5 and ND-C14 treatment groups. A virtual colony-count assay was used to evaluate the antibacterial activity of HD5 and ND-C14 against S. pneumoniae. The morphological changes of S. pneumoniae treated with HD5 or ND-C14 were observed by scanning electron microscopy. In vivo, mice were divided into sham, vehicle, and ND-C14 treatment groups. Mice in the sham group were treated with 25 μL of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Mice in the vehicle and ND-C14 treatment groups were treated with intratracheal instillation of 25 μL of bacterial suspension with 2×108 CFU/mL (total bacterial count: 5×106 CFU), and then the mice were given 25 μL PBS or intratracheally injected with 25 μL of ND-C14 (including 20 μg or 50 μg), respectively. Survival rates were evaluated in the vehicle and ND-C14 treatment groups. Bacterial burden in the blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were counted. The lung histology of the mice was assessed. A propidium iodide uptake assay was used to clarify the destructive effect of ND-C14 against S. pneumoniae. RESULTS Compared with HD5, ND-C14 had a better bactericidal effect against S. pneumoniae because of its stronger ability to destroy the membrane structure of S. pneumoniae in vitro. In vivo, ND-C14 significantly delayed the death time and improved the survival rate of mice infected with S. pneumoniae. ND-C14 reduced bacterial burden and lung tissue injury. Moreover, ND-C14 had a membrane permeation effect on S. pneumoniae, and its destructive ability increased with increasing ND-C14 concentration. CONCLUSION The ND-C14 may improve bactericidal effects on S. pneumoniae both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangyang Guo
- Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Hangzhou Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Yaqi Sun
- National Children’s Regional Medical Center, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health, Children’s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310052, China
| | - Hongxia Wu
- Department of Spleen and Stomach Diseases, Hangzhou Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Jian Lu
- Department of Ultrasonic Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo 315010, China
| | - Yuan Lin
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo 315010, China
| | - Jiaqing Zhu
- Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Hangzhou Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Meihong Lai
- Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Hangzhou Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Meiqi Zhang
- Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Hangzhou Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo 315010, China
| | - Jungang Zheng
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo 315010, China
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
- The First People’s Hospital of Yuexi County, Yuexi 616650, China
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11
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Hsu PH, Hazam PK, Huang YP, Yeh JC, Chen YR, Li CC, Chang CF, Liou JW, Chen JY. Sequential rearrangement and stereochemical reorganization to design an antimicrobial peptide with enhanced stability. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 170:116088. [PMID: 38159380 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.116088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are natural molecules that function within the innate immune system to counteract pathogenic invasion and minimize the detrimental consequences of infection. However, utilizing these molecules for medical applications has been challenging. In this study, we selected a model AMP with poor stability, Tilapia Piscidin 4 (TP4), and modified its sequence and chirality (TP4-γ) to improve its potential for clinical application. The strategy of chirality inversion was inspired by the cereulide peptide, which has a DDLL enantiomer pattern and exhibits exceptional stability. Sequential substitution of key residues and selective chirality inversion yielded a less toxic peptide with enhanced stability and notable antimicrobial activity. In addition to its superior stability profile and antimicrobial activity, TP4-γ treatment reduced the level of LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) release in a macrophage cell line. This reduction in NO release may reflect anti-inflammatory properties, as NO is widely known to promote inflammatory processes. Hence, our heterochiral peptide construct shows a more suitable pharmacokinetic profile than its parental compound, and further studies are warranted to develop the molecule for potential clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po-Hsien Hsu
- Institute of Fisheries Science, National Taiwan University, 1 Roosevelt Road, Section 4, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Prakash Kishore Hazam
- Marine Research Station, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, 23-10 Dahuen Rd., Jiaushi, Ilan 262, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ping Huang
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jih-Chao Yeh
- Marine Research Station, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, 23-10 Dahuen Rd., Jiaushi, Ilan 262, Taiwan
| | - Yun-Ru Chen
- Academia Sinica Protein Clinic, Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, 128, Academia Road, Section 2, Nankang District, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Chao-Chin Li
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Fon Chang
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Je-Wen Liou
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Tzu Chi University, 701, Section 3, Chung-Yang Rd, Hualien 970, Taiwan.
| | - Jyh-Yih Chen
- Marine Research Station, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, 23-10 Dahuen Rd., Jiaushi, Ilan 262, Taiwan; The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center and the Rong Hsing Research Center for Translational Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan.
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12
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Shin MK, Hwang IW, Jang BY, Bu KB, Han DH, Lee SH, Oh JW, Yoo JS, Sung JS. The Identification of a Novel Spider Toxin Peptide, Lycotoxin-Pa2a, with Antibacterial and Anti-Inflammatory Activities. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:1708. [PMID: 38136742 PMCID: PMC10740532 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12121708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
With the increasing challenge of controlling infectious diseases due to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains, the importance of discovering new antimicrobial agents is rapidly increasing. Animal venoms contain a variety of functional peptides, making them a promising platform for pharmaceutical development. In this study, a novel toxin peptide with antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities was discovered from the spider venom gland transcriptome by implementing computational approaches. Lycotoxin-Pa2a (Lytx-Pa2a) showed homology to known-spider toxin, where functional prediction indicated the potential of both antibacterial and anti-inflammatory peptides without hemolytic activity. The colony-forming assay and minimum inhibitory concentration test showed that Lytx-Pa2a exhibited comparable or stronger antibacterial activity against pathogenic strains than melittin. Following mechanistic studies revealed that Lytx-Pa2a disrupts both cytoplasmic and outer membranes of bacteria while simultaneously inducing the accumulation of reactive oxygen species. The peptide exerted no significant toxicity when treated to human primary cells, murine macrophages, and bovine red blood cells. Moreover, Lytx-Pa2a alleviated lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in mouse macrophages by suppressing the expression of inflammatory mediators. These findings not only suggested that Lytx-Pa2a with dual activity can be utilized as a new antimicrobial agent for infectious diseases but also demonstrated the implementation of in silico methods for discovering a novel functional peptide, which may enhance the future utilization of biological resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Kyoung Shin
- Department of Life Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea; (M.K.S.); (I.-W.H.); (B.-Y.J.); (K.-B.B.); (D.-H.H.); (S.-H.L.); (J.W.O.)
| | - In-Wook Hwang
- Department of Life Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea; (M.K.S.); (I.-W.H.); (B.-Y.J.); (K.-B.B.); (D.-H.H.); (S.-H.L.); (J.W.O.)
| | - Bo-Young Jang
- Department of Life Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea; (M.K.S.); (I.-W.H.); (B.-Y.J.); (K.-B.B.); (D.-H.H.); (S.-H.L.); (J.W.O.)
| | - Kyung-Bin Bu
- Department of Life Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea; (M.K.S.); (I.-W.H.); (B.-Y.J.); (K.-B.B.); (D.-H.H.); (S.-H.L.); (J.W.O.)
| | - Dong-Hee Han
- Department of Life Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea; (M.K.S.); (I.-W.H.); (B.-Y.J.); (K.-B.B.); (D.-H.H.); (S.-H.L.); (J.W.O.)
| | - Seung-Ho Lee
- Department of Life Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea; (M.K.S.); (I.-W.H.); (B.-Y.J.); (K.-B.B.); (D.-H.H.); (S.-H.L.); (J.W.O.)
| | - Jin Wook Oh
- Department of Life Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea; (M.K.S.); (I.-W.H.); (B.-Y.J.); (K.-B.B.); (D.-H.H.); (S.-H.L.); (J.W.O.)
| | - Jung Sun Yoo
- Species Diversity Research Division, National Institute of Biological Resources, Incheon 22689, Republic of Korea;
| | - Jung-Suk Sung
- Department of Life Science, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea; (M.K.S.); (I.-W.H.); (B.-Y.J.); (K.-B.B.); (D.-H.H.); (S.-H.L.); (J.W.O.)
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13
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Xiao G, Li J, Sun Z. The Combination of Antibiotic and Non-Antibiotic Compounds Improves Antibiotic Efficacy against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15493. [PMID: 37895172 PMCID: PMC10607837 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242015493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial antibiotic resistance, especially the emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains, urgently requires the development of effective treatment strategies. It is always of interest to delve into the mechanisms of resistance to current antibiotics and target them to promote the efficacy of existing antibiotics. In recent years, non-antibiotic compounds have played an important auxiliary role in improving the efficacy of antibiotics and promoting the treatment of drug-resistant bacteria. The combination of non-antibiotic compounds with antibiotics is considered a promising strategy against MDR bacteria. In this review, we first briefly summarize the main resistance mechanisms of current antibiotics. In addition, we propose several strategies to enhance antibiotic action based on resistance mechanisms. Then, the research progress of non-antibiotic compounds that can promote antibiotic-resistant bacteria through different mechanisms in recent years is also summarized. Finally, the development prospects and challenges of these non-antibiotic compounds in combination with antibiotics are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Zhiliang Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China; (G.X.); (J.L.)
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14
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Lennard PR, Hiemstra PS, Nibbering PH. Complementary Activities of Host Defence Peptides and Antibiotics in Combating Antimicrobial Resistant Bacteria. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:1518. [PMID: 37887219 PMCID: PMC10604037 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12101518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to their ability to eliminate antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria and to modulate the immune response, host defence peptides (HDPs) hold great promise for the clinical treatment of bacterial infections. Whereas monotherapy with HDPs is not likely to become an effective first-line treatment, combinations of such peptides with antibiotics can potentially provide a path to future therapies for AMR infections. Therefore, we critically reviewed the recent literature regarding the antibacterial activity of combinations of HDPs and antibiotics against AMR bacteria and the approaches taken in these studies. Of the 86 studies compiled, 56 featured a formal assessment of synergy between agents. Of the combinations assessed, synergistic and additive interactions between HDPs and antibiotics amounted to 84.9% of the records, while indifferent and antagonistic interactions accounted for 15.1%. Penicillin, aminoglycoside, fluoro/quinolone, and glycopeptide antibiotic classes were the most frequently documented as interacting with HDPs, and Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Enterococcus faecium were the most reported bacterial species. Few studies formally evaluated the effects of combinations of HDPs and antibiotics on bacteria, and even fewer assessed such combinations against bacteria within biofilms, in animal models, or in advanced tissue infection models. Despite the biases of the current literature, the studies suggest that effective combinations of HDPs and antibiotics hold promise for the future treatment of infections caused by AMR bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick R. Lennard
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
- Institute of Immunology and Infection, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FE, UK
- PulmoScience Lab, Department of Pulmonology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden 2333, The Netherlands
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden 2333, The Netherlands;
| | - Pieter S. Hiemstra
- PulmoScience Lab, Department of Pulmonology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden 2333, The Netherlands
| | - Peter H. Nibbering
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden 2333, The Netherlands;
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15
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Cafaro V, Bosso A, Di Nardo I, D’Amato A, Izzo I, De Riccardis F, Siepi M, Culurciello R, D’Urzo N, Chiarot E, Torre A, Pizzo E, Merola M, Notomista E. The Antimicrobial, Antibiofilm and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of P13#1, a Cathelicidin-like Achiral Peptoid. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1386. [PMID: 37895857 PMCID: PMC10610514 DOI: 10.3390/ph16101386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAMPs) are powerful molecules with antimicrobial, antibiofilm and endotoxin-scavenging activities. These properties make CAMPs very attractive drugs in the face of the rapid increase in multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens, but they are limited by their susceptibility to proteolytic degradation. An intriguing solution to this issue could be the development of functional mimics of CAMPs with structures that enable the evasion of proteases. Peptoids (N-substituted glycine oligomers) are an important class of peptidomimetics with interesting benefits: easy synthetic access, intrinsic proteolytic stability and promising bioactivities. Here, we report the characterization of P13#1, a 13-residue peptoid specifically designed to mimic cathelicidins, the best-known and most widespread family of CAMPs. P13#1 showed all the biological activities typically associated with cathelicidins: bactericidal activity over a wide spectrum of strains, including several ESKAPE pathogens; the ability to act in combination with different classes of conventional antibiotics; antibiofilm activity against preformed biofilms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, comparable to that of human cathelicidin LL-37; limited toxicity; and an ability to inhibit LPS-induced proinflammatory effects which is comparable to that of "the last resource" antibiotic colistin. We further studied the interaction of P13#1 with SDS, LPSs and bacterial cells by using a fluorescent version of P13#1. Finally, in a subcutaneous infection mouse model, it showed antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities comparable to ampicillin and gentamicin without apparent toxicity. The collected data indicate that P13#1 is an excellent candidate for the formulation of new antimicrobial therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Cafaro
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy; (V.C.); (A.B.); (I.D.N.); (M.S.); (R.C.); (N.D.); (E.P.)
| | - Andrea Bosso
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy; (V.C.); (A.B.); (I.D.N.); (M.S.); (R.C.); (N.D.); (E.P.)
| | - Ilaria Di Nardo
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy; (V.C.); (A.B.); (I.D.N.); (M.S.); (R.C.); (N.D.); (E.P.)
| | - Assunta D’Amato
- Department of Chemistry and Biology “A. Zambelli”, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; (A.D.); (I.I.); (F.D.R.)
| | - Irene Izzo
- Department of Chemistry and Biology “A. Zambelli”, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; (A.D.); (I.I.); (F.D.R.)
| | - Francesco De Riccardis
- Department of Chemistry and Biology “A. Zambelli”, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, Italy; (A.D.); (I.I.); (F.D.R.)
| | - Marialuisa Siepi
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy; (V.C.); (A.B.); (I.D.N.); (M.S.); (R.C.); (N.D.); (E.P.)
| | - Rosanna Culurciello
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy; (V.C.); (A.B.); (I.D.N.); (M.S.); (R.C.); (N.D.); (E.P.)
| | - Nunzia D’Urzo
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy; (V.C.); (A.B.); (I.D.N.); (M.S.); (R.C.); (N.D.); (E.P.)
| | | | | | - Elio Pizzo
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy; (V.C.); (A.B.); (I.D.N.); (M.S.); (R.C.); (N.D.); (E.P.)
| | - Marcello Merola
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy; (V.C.); (A.B.); (I.D.N.); (M.S.); (R.C.); (N.D.); (E.P.)
| | - Eugenio Notomista
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy; (V.C.); (A.B.); (I.D.N.); (M.S.); (R.C.); (N.D.); (E.P.)
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