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Venkateswaran S, Somineni HK, Matthews JD, Kilaru V, Hyams JS, Denson LA, Kellamayer R, Gibson G, Cutler DJ, Conneely KN, Smith AK, Kugathasan S. Longitudinal DNA methylation profiling of the rectal mucosa identifies cell-specific signatures of disease status, severity and clinical outcomes in ulcerative colitis cell-specific DNA methylation signatures of UC. Clin Epigenetics 2023; 15:50. [PMID: 36964596 PMCID: PMC10039532 DOI: 10.1186/s13148-023-01462-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In peripheral blood, DNA methylation (DNAm) patterns in inflammatory bowel disease patients reflect inflammatory status rather than disease status. Here, we examined DNAm in diseased rectal mucosa from ulcerative colitis (UC) patients, focusing on constituent cell types with the goal of identifying therapeutic targets for UC other than the immune system. We profiled DNAm of rectal mucosal biopsies of pediatric UC at diagnosis (n = 211) and non-IBD control (n = 85) patients and performed epigenome-wide association studies (EWAS) of specific cell types to understand DNAm changes in epithelial, immune and fibroblast cells across disease states, course, and clinical outcomes. We also examined longitudinal analysis on follow-up samples (n = 73), and comparisons were made among patients with clinical outcomes including those undergoing colectomy versus those who did not. Additionally, we included RNA-seq from the same subjects to assess the impact of CpG sites on the transcription of nearby genes during the disease course. RESULTS At diagnosis, UC rectal mucosa exhibited a lower proportion of epithelial cells and fibroblasts, and higher proportion of immune cells, in conjunction with variation in the DNAm pattern. While treatment had significant effects on the methylation signature of immune cells, its effects on fibroblasts and epithelial cells were attenuated. Individuals who required colectomy exhibited cell composition and DNAm patterns at follow-up more similar to disease onset than patients who did not require colectomy. Combining these results with gene expression profiles, we identify CpG sites whose methylation patterns are most consistent with a contribution to poor disease outcomes and could thus be potential therapeutic targets. CONCLUSIONS Cell-specific epigenetic changes in the rectal mucosa in UC are associated with disease severity and outcome. Current therapeutics may more effectively target the immune than the epithelial and fibroblast compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suresh Venkateswaran
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine and Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1760 Haygood Drive, W-427, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Hari K Somineni
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine and Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1760 Haygood Drive, W-427, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Jason D Matthews
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine and Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1760 Haygood Drive, W-427, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Varun Kilaru
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Hyams
- Division of Digestive Diseases, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Connecticut Children's Medical Center, Hartford, CT, USA
| | - Lee A Denson
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Richard Kellamayer
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Texas Children's Hospital Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Greg Gibson
- Center for Integrative Genomics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - David J Cutler
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Karen N Conneely
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Genetics and Molecular Biology Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Alicia K Smith
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Genetics and Molecular Biology Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Subra Kugathasan
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine and Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1760 Haygood Drive, W-427, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Genetics and Molecular Biology Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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Simon DA, Kellermayer R. Disturbed Pediatric Gut Microbiome Maturation in the Developmental Origins of Subsequent Chronic Disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2023; 76:123-127. [PMID: 36705694 DOI: 10.1097/mpg.0000000000003664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The microbiome is known to play an important role in the development and maintenance of human health. During early childhood the gut microbiome undergoes a rapid evolution, making this developmental window most susceptible to microbial manipulation and, therefore, most vulnerable to environmental stimuli. Such stimuli may induce persistent alterations (or dysbiosis) in microbiome and/or host physiology, thereby resulting in susceptibility to subsequent disease development. This phenomenon is frequently described as "the microbial developmental origins of disease." In this topic of the month, we call attention to the microbial developmental origins of disease by examining the potential for childhood antibiotic exposures and appendectomy (ie, inducers of dysbiosis) to influence the pathogenesis of certain multifactorial, common diseases (eg, celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease, obesity), especially those with increasing incidence worldwide. We conclude that fully appreciating the critical components in the microbial developmental origins of common chronic disorders is a major task ahead of pediatric gastroenterologists in the 21st century. Such information will be key in working to prevent numerous common and emerging disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Aaron Simon
- From the Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX
| | - Richard Kellermayer
- From the Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX
- the USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, TX
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Kellermayer R, van der Laan M. Validation of Predictive Models in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. Gastroenterology 2021; 160:21-22. [PMID: 33188805 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2020.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Kellermayer
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology & Nutrition, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.
| | - Mark van der Laan
- School of Public Health, Division of Biostatistics, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California
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Kellermayer R, Zilbauer M. The Gut Microbiome and the Triple Environmental Hit Concept of Inflammatory Bowel Disease Pathogenesis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2020; 71:589-595. [PMID: 33093364 DOI: 10.1097/mpg.0000000000002908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of chronic inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), such as Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) have significantly increased in recent decades implicating environmental effects. The developmental origin of disease concept provides a theoretical framework by which the complex interplay between environmental factors and host cells, particularly during vulnerable time periods, ultimately cause disease, such as IBD. Epigenetics has been proposed as the underlying mechanism within this concept, turning environmental triggers into stable changes of cellular function. Adding further to the complexity of IBD is the gut microbiome, which is equally responsive to the environment, and can impact host cell function, where recent findings underscore the stochastic and individualized nature of such effects. We review the microbiome literature through a novel triple environmental hit concept (priming, modulation, and trigger) of IBD pathogenesis. We propose that there are at least 3 distinct stages during an individual's lifespan where random/stochastic events driven by environmental influences are necessary for ultimately developing IBD. By this means, we speculate that microbiome-directed therapeutics carry potential for individualized prevention and dynamic treatment of IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Kellermayer
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Texas Children's Hospital Baylor College of Medicine
- USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, TX
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Krishna M, Salako A, Fofanova T, Kellermayer R. Parental Education May Differentially Impact Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease Phenotype Risk. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2020; 26:1068-1076. [PMID: 31587061 DOI: 10.1093/ibd/izz225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The incidence of pediatric inflammatory bowel diseases (PIBDs: Crohn's disease [CD], ulcerative colitis [UC]) is on the rise around the world. Yet, the critical risk factors for this rising incidence are not well understood. Demographic characteristics of PIBD may improve our understanding of their developmental origins and aid in prevention. METHODS Four hundred eighty-eight consecutive PIBD patients diagnosed at Texas Children's Hospital from 13 counties around Houston were studied. An annual incidence map was created by ZIP code of residence at diagnosis by using ArcGIS and the American Community Survey from the US Census Bureau. Correlation between demographic variables and PIBD incidence was examined. A model to explain incidence from different health factors was created in R. RESULTS Hispanic children were more likely to be diagnosed with UC (P < 0.01) and unclassified IBD (IBD-U) (P < 0.03) compared with other races/ethnicities. A significant positive correlation (r = 0.35, P < 0.0001) between median household income and PIBD incidence was observed (UC: r = 0.23, P < 0.0001; CD: r = 0.22, P = 0.0004). ZIP codes with majority college-educated adults had a higher incidence of PIBD than ZIP codes with majority high school-educated adults (P < 0.0001). Pediatric cases with CD were more common in ZIP codes where the majority of adults were college educated (P < 0.0001). Pediatric cases with UC, however, were more common in ZIP codes where the majority of adults were high school educated (P = 0.0036). CONCLUSIONS Hispanic children more commonly present with UC and IBD-U in southern USA. Household income and/or adult education-related environmental/dietary differences may be important in the developmental origins of PIBD in large metro areas, such as Houston.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahesh Krishna
- Wiess School of Natural Sciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA.,Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Aziza Salako
- Wiess School of Natural Sciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Tatiana Fofanova
- Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Richard Kellermayer
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
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6
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Britto S, Kellermayer R. Carbohydrate Monotony as Protection and Treatment for Inflammatory Bowel Disease. J Crohns Colitis 2019; 13:942-948. [PMID: 30715243 DOI: 10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjz011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The nutritional developmental origins of inflammatory bowel disease[s] (IBDs: Crohn's disease or Crohn disease [CD] and ulcerative colitis [UC]) and their diet-based treatments continue to receive increasing attention. There is growing evidence for the success of nutrition-based treatments, such as exclusive enteral nutrition [EEN] and the specific carbohydrate diet [SCD], in both paediatric and adult patients. Beyond these two dietary interventions, symptomatic benefit in IBD has also been shown from a gluten-free diet [GFD] and paleolithic diet [PALEO], among others. These nutritional therapies may point to critical factors in not only the pathology, but also the pathogenesis of the disease group. It is difficult, however, to discern a common element within the large number of diet-based causation theories [e.g. emulsifiers, processed foods, refrigeration, increased total fat intake, low fibre intake, carbohydrate dominant food, etc.] and the varied dietary treatments of IBD. This Viewpoint article highlights that carbohydrate variation links diet-based causation theories, and that carbohydrate monotony or persistence is the commonly shared characteristic of diet-based IBD therapy. Further research directed towards carbohydrate monotony may critically advance the prevention and treatment of these highly morbid conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Savini Britto
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Richard Kellermayer
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, TX, USA
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7
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Britto SL, Krishna M, Kellermayer R. Weight loss is a sufficient and economical single outcome measure of murine dextran sulfate sodium colitis. FASEB Bioadv 2019; 1:493-497. [PMID: 32123846 PMCID: PMC6996316 DOI: 10.1096/fba.2019-00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD: Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis) are becoming common around the world without a cure. Animal models of colitis have become instrumental in IBD research. The dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) induced murine colitis model is likely the most utilized due to its simplicity and reproducibility with over 4000 publications on PubMed, where weight loss is the most commonly used and reliable positive correlate. We predicted at current state of art, that the DSS colitis model can be optimized by using weight loss as a single cost‐saving outcome measure. Twenty recent and consecutive publications using the DSS model in PubMed were selected for review. Guarded cost estimations for additional outcome measures of colitis beyond weight loss were performed. In all manuscripts (100%), weight loss corroborated the conclusions. Average excess cost for examining additional measures of colitis was approximately $6700 per publication. Two studies (10.5%) were estimated to have spent over $20,000 in excess. Additional measures of colitis either supported the final conclusions found with weight loss, or lead to indeterminate results. Potential annual savings from following our guidance were calculated to be over $60,000 for and IBD lab. We conclude that weight loss is a sufficient, objective, and economical outcome measure of DSS‐induced colitis in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Savini Lanka Britto
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology Texas Children's Hospital Baylor College of Medicine Houston Texas
| | - Mahesh Krishna
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology Texas Children's Hospital Baylor College of Medicine Houston Texas
| | - Richard Kellermayer
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology Texas Children's Hospital Baylor College of Medicine Houston Texas.,USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center Houston Texas
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8
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Abstract
The human epigenome may link environmental exposures and commensal microbiota changes to host pathology in respect to the developmental origins of inflammatory bowel diseases (ulcerative colitis [UC] and Crohn's disease [more appropriately Crohn disease, CD]). Genetic predisposition - prenatal, perinatal and pediatric environmental influences - microbiome aberration (dysbiosis) and immune dysregulation appear to be important elements in disease development, progression and maintenance. The prevalence of combined genetic and epigenetic susceptibility toward UC and CD is calculated herein to be as high as 2%, and approximately 1% for UC and CD in highly developed countries, respectively. This review emphasizes the significant challenges for epigenetic research in inflammatory bowel diseases. Overcoming these challenges, however, could reveal unique opportunities for disease prevention, treatment and possible cure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Kellermayer
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children's Hospital, USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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9
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Gould NJ, Davidson KL, Nwokolo CU, Arasaradnam RP. A systematic review of the role of DNA methylation on inflammatory genes in ulcerative colitis. Epigenomics 2016; 8:667-84. [PMID: 27096966 DOI: 10.2217/epi-2016-0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ulcerative colitis (UC) is an idiopathic disease of the large intestine with evidence pointing to the role of epigenetic changes. METHODS Searches were performed in three databases (EMBASE, MEDLINE and Web of Science), following PRISMA protocol. DNA methylation was the only epigenetic mechanism affecting genes linked to inflammatory response in UC. RESULTS A total of 25 differentially methylated inflammatory genes were identified. Hypermethylation of miR-1247 significantly correlates (p = 0.0006) with refractory UC while PAR2 hypermethylation correlates (p = 0.007) with corticosteroid dependence. CONCLUSION Evidence points to a step-wise increase in methylation status of the genome between a healthy colon, quiescent UC and when inflamed. Inflammatory genes (which are aberrantly methylated), have also been implicated in cancer development in UC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chuka U Nwokolo
- Department of Gastroenterology, University Hospital Coventry & Warwickshire, CV2 2DX, UK
| | - Ramesh P Arasaradnam
- Department of Gastroenterology, University Hospital Coventry & Warwickshire, CV2 2DX, UK.,Clinical Sciences Research Institute, University Hospital Coventry & Warwickshire, CV2 2DX, UK
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10
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Microbiome-Epigenome Interactions and the Environmental Origins of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2016; 62:208-19. [PMID: 26308318 PMCID: PMC4724338 DOI: 10.1097/mpg.0000000000000950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of pediatric inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis, has risen alarmingly in the Western and developing world in recent decades. Epidemiologic (including monozygotic twin and migrant) studies highlight the substantial role of environment and nutrition in IBD etiology. Here we review the literature supporting the developmental and environmental origins hypothesis of IBD. We also provide a detailed exploration of how the human microbiome and epigenome (primarily through DNA methylation) may be important elements in the developmental origins of IBD in both children and adults.
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11
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Nagy-Szakal D, Mir SAV, Harris RA, Dowd SE, Yamada T, Lacorazza HD, Tatevian N, Smith CW, de Zoeten EF, Klein J, Kellermayer R. Loss of n-6 fatty acid induced pediatric obesity protects against acute murine colitis. FASEB J 2015; 29:3151-9. [PMID: 25903104 DOI: 10.1096/fj.14-267690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Dietary influences may affect microbiome composition and host immune responses, thereby modulating propensity toward inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs): Crohn disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Dietary n-6 fatty acids have been associated with UC in prospective studies. However, the critical developmental period when (n-6) consumption may induce UC is not known. We examined the effects of transiently increased n-6 consumption during pediatric development on subsequent dextran-sulfate-sodium (DSS)-induced acute murine colitis. The animals transiently became obese then rapidly lost this phenotype. Interestingly, mice were protected against DSS colitis 40 days after n-6 consumption. The transient high n-6-induced protection against colitis was fat type- and dietary reversal-dependent and could be transferred to germ-free mice by fecal microbiota transplantation. We also detected decreased numbers of chemokine receptor (Cxcr)5(+) CD4(+) T cells in the mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) of transiently n-6-fed mice. Further experiments revealed that anti-chemokine ligand (Cxcl)13 (the ligand of Cxcr5) antibody treatment decreased DSS colitis severity, implicating the importance of the Cxcr5-Cxcl13 pathway in mammalian colitis. Consecutively, we found elevated CXCL13 concentrations (CD: 1.8-fold, P = 0.0077; UC: 1.9-fold, P = 0.056) in the serum of untreated pediatric IBD patients. The human serologic observations supported the translational relevance of our findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorottya Nagy-Szakal
- *Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA; U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Molecular Research LP, Shallowater, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Digestive Health Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and **School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Sabina A V Mir
- *Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA; U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Molecular Research LP, Shallowater, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Digestive Health Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and **School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - R Alan Harris
- *Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA; U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Molecular Research LP, Shallowater, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Digestive Health Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and **School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Scot E Dowd
- *Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA; U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Molecular Research LP, Shallowater, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Digestive Health Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and **School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Takeshi Yamada
- *Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA; U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Molecular Research LP, Shallowater, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Digestive Health Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and **School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - H Daniel Lacorazza
- *Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA; U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Molecular Research LP, Shallowater, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Digestive Health Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and **School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Nina Tatevian
- *Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA; U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Molecular Research LP, Shallowater, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Digestive Health Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and **School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - C Wayne Smith
- *Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA; U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Molecular Research LP, Shallowater, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Digestive Health Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and **School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Edwin F de Zoeten
- *Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA; U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Molecular Research LP, Shallowater, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Digestive Health Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and **School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - John Klein
- *Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA; U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Molecular Research LP, Shallowater, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Digestive Health Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and **School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Richard Kellermayer
- *Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA; U.S. Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Molecular Research LP, Shallowater, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA; Digestive Health Institute, Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA; and **School of Dentistry, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
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12
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Chen SJ, Liu XW, Liu JP, Yang XY, Lu FG. Ulcerative colitis as a polymicrobial infection characterized by sustained broken mucus barrier. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20:9468-9475. [PMID: 25071341 PMCID: PMC4110578 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i28.9468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2014] [Revised: 02/24/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
To reduce medication for patients with ulcerative colitis (UC), we need to establish the etiology of UC. The intestinal microbiota of patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has been shown to differ from that of healthy controls and abundant data indicate that it changes in both composition and localization. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth is significantly higher in IBD patients compared with controls. Probiotics have been investigated for their capacity to reduce the severity of UC. The luminal surfaces of the gastrointestinal tract are covered by a mucus layer. This normally acts as a barrier that does not allow bacteria to reach the epithelial cells and thus limits the direct contact between the host and the bacteria. The mucus layer in the colon comprises an inner layer that is firmly adherent to the intestinal mucosa, and an outer layer that can be washed off with minimal rinsing. Some bacteria can dissolve the protective inner mucus layer. Defects in renewal and formation of the inner mucus layer allow bacteria to reach the epithelium and have implications for the causes of colitis. In this review, important elements of UC pathology are thought to be the intestinal bacteria, gut mucus, and the mucosa-associated immune system.
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The C57BL/6J mouse exhibits sporadic congenital portosystemic shunts. PLoS One 2013; 8:e69782. [PMID: 23936100 PMCID: PMC3720623 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2012] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
C57BL/6 mice are the most widely used strain of laboratory mice. Using in vivo proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (1H MRS), we have repeatedly observed an abnormal neurochemical profile in the brains of both wild-type and genetically modified mice derived from the C57BL/6J strain, consisting of a several fold increase in cerebral glutamine and two fold decrease in myo-inositol. This strikingly abnormal neurochemical “phenotype” resembles that observed in chronic liver disease or portosystemic shunting and appeared to be independent of transgene, origin or chow and was not associated with liver failure. As many as 25% of animals displayed the abnormal neurochemical profile, questioning the reliability of this model for neurobiology. We conducted an independent study to determine if this neurochemical profile was associated with portosystemic shunting. Our results showed that 100% of the mice with high brain glutamine displayed portosystemic shunting by concomitant portal angiography while all mice with normal brain glutamine did not. Since portosystemic shunting is known to cause alterations in gene expression in many organs including the brain, we conclude that portosystemic shunting may be the most significant problem associated with C57BL/6J inbreeding both for its effect on the central nervous system and for its systemic repercussions.
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Epigenetics and the developmental origins of inflammatory bowel diseases. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF GASTROENTEROLOGY = JOURNAL CANADIEN DE GASTROENTEROLOGIE 2013; 26:909-15. [PMID: 23248794 DOI: 10.1155/2012/526408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The gut microbiota, the intestinal mucosa and the host immune system are among the large biological networks involved in the development of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes Crohn disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Host genetics and environmental factors can significantly modulate the interactive relationships among these biological systems and influence predilection toward IBD. High monozygotic twin discordance rates and the rapid rise in the prevalence of IBD indicate that environmental influences may be as important or even more important in their pathogenesis than genetic susceptibility. However, the nature and timing of environmental factors critical for inducing IBD remain largely unknown. The molecular mechanisms and the key biological component(s) that may be affected by such factors are also in question. Epigenetic changes, such as DNA methylation (the methylation of cytosines followed by a guanine in CpG dinucleotides) can be modified by environmental influences during finite developmental periods and have been implicated in the pathogenesis of IBD. Mucosal DNA methylation can also react to changes in the commensal microbiota, underscoring the intercalating relationships among the large biological systems involved in gastrointestinal disorders. Therefore, transient environmental influences during specific periods of development may induce critical change(s) in an isolated or concomitant fashion within the intestinal biomic networks and lead to increased susceptibility to IBD. The present review focuses on the emerging paradigm shift considering IBD to originate from critical environmental effects during pre- and postnatal development.
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Nagy-Szakal D, Hollister EB, Luna RA, Szigeti R, Tatevian N, Smith CW, Versalovic J, Kellermayer R. Cellulose supplementation early in life ameliorates colitis in adult mice. PLoS One 2013; 8:e56685. [PMID: 23437211 PMCID: PMC3577696 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2012] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Decreased consumption of dietary fibers, such as cellulose, has been proposed to promote the emergence of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD: Crohn disease [CD] and ulcerative colitis [UC]) where intestinal microbes are recognized to play an etiologic role. However, it is not known if transient fiber consumption during critical developmental periods may prevent consecutive intestinal inflammation. The incidence of IBD peaks in young adulthood indicating that pediatric environmental exposures may be important in the etiology of this disease group. We studied the effects of transient dietary cellulose supplementation on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) colitis susceptibility during the pediatric period in mice. Cellulose supplementation stimulated substantial shifts in the colonic mucosal microbiome. Several bacterial taxa decreased in relative abundance (e.g., Coriobacteriaceae [p = 0.001]), and other taxa increased in abundance (e.g., Peptostreptococcaceae [p = 0.008] and Clostridiaceae [p = 0.048]). Some of these shifts persisted for 10 days following the cessation of cellulose supplementation. The changes in the gut microbiome were associated with transient trophic and anticolitic effects 10 days following the cessation of a cellulose-enriched diet, but these changes diminished by 40 days following reversal to a low cellulose diet. These findings emphasize the transient protective effect of dietary cellulose in the mammalian large bowel and highlight the potential role of dietary fibers in amelioration of intestinal inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorottya Nagy-Szakal
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Emily B. Hollister
- Department of Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Ruth Ann Luna
- Department of Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Reka Szigeti
- Department of Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Nina Tatevian
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - C. Wayne Smith
- USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - James Versalovic
- Department of Pathology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Richard Kellermayer
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Harris RA, Nagy-Szakal D, Pedersen N, Opekun A, Bronsky J, Munkholm P, Jespersgaard C, Andersen PS, Melegh B, Ferry G, Jess T, Kellermayer R. Genome-wide peripheral blood leukocyte DNA methylation microarrays identified a single association with inflammatory bowel diseases. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2012; 18:2334-41. [PMID: 22467598 PMCID: PMC3812910 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.22956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2012] [Accepted: 02/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) are common forms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Monozygotic (MZ) twin discordance rates and epidemiologic data implicate that environmental changes and epigenetic factors may play a pathogenic role in IBD. DNA methylation (the methylation of cytosines within CpG dinucleotides) is an epigenetic modification, which can respond to environmental influences. We investigated whether DNA methylation might be connected with IBD in peripheral blood leukocyte (PBL) DNA by utilizing genome-wide microarrays. METHODS Two different high-throughput microarray-based methods for genome-wide DNA methylation analysis were employed. First, DNA isolated from MZ twin pairs concordant (CD: 4; UC: 3) and discordant (CD: 4; UC: 7) for IBD was interrogated by a custom-made methylation-specific amplification microarray (MSAM). Second, the recently developed Illumina Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip arrays were used on 48 samples of PBL DNA from discordant MZ twin pairs (CD: 3; UC: 3) and treatment-naive pediatric cases of IBD (CD: 14; UC: 8), as well as controls (n = 14). The microarrays were validated with bisulfite pyrosequencing. RESULTS The MSAMs did not yield significant IBD associations. The Methylation BeadChip approach identified a single DNA methylation association of IBD at TEPP (testis, prostate and placenta-expressed protein) when DNA isolated selectively from peripheral blood mononuclear cells was analyzed (8.6% increase in methylation between CD and control, FDR = 0.0065). CONCLUSIONS Microarray interrogation of IBD-dependent DNA methylation from PBLs appears to have limited ability to detect significant disease associations. More detailed and/or selective approaches may be useful for the elucidation of connections between the DNA methylome and IBD in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Alan. Harris
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Dorottya Nagy-Szakal
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, USA,USDA/ARS Children’s Nutrition Research Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Natalia Pedersen
- Gastroenterology Unit, Herlev University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
| | - Antone Opekun
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, USA,Department of Gasteonterology-TMC Digestive Disease Center, Baylor College of Medicine
| | - Jiri Bronsky
- Department of Pediatrics, Second Medical Faculty, Charles University and University Hospital Motol, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Pia Munkholm
- Gastroenterology Unit, Herlev University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
| | - Cathrine Jespersgaard
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Immunology, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Paal Skytt Andersen
- Department of Microbiological Surveillance and Research, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Bela Melegh
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Pecs, Hungary
| | - George Ferry
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Tine Jess
- Department of Epidemiology Research, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Richard Kellermayer
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, TX, USA,USDA/ARS Children’s Nutrition Research Center, Houston, TX, USA
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Nagy-Szakal D, Ross MC, Dowd SE, Mir SA, Schaible TD, Petrosino JF, Kellermayer R. Maternal micronutrients can modify colonic mucosal microbiota maturation in murine offspring. Gut Microbes 2012; 3:426-33. [PMID: 22713270 PMCID: PMC3679229 DOI: 10.4161/gmic.20697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidemiologic data suggest that early nutritional exposures may inflict persistent changes in the developing mammalian "super-organism" (i.e., the host and its residing microbiota). Such persistent modifications could predispose young adults to inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). We recently observed that the dietary supplementation of four micronutrients to dams augmented colitis susceptibility in murine offspring in association with mucosal microbiota composition changes. In this study the effects of the four micronutrients on the microbiota of dams and female mice was examined. Additionally, age dependent microbiota composition shifts during pediatric development were delineated from the previous offspring data sets. Maternal and adult female microbiota did not separate secondary to the nutritional intervention. Significant microbiota composition changes occurred from postnatal day 30 (P30) to P90 at the level of 1 phylum and 15 genera. Most of these changes were absent or opposite in the maternally supplemented offspring. Nutritionally induced alterations in mucosal microbiota maturation may be contributors to colitis susceptibility in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorottya Nagy-Szakal
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology; Baylor College of Medicine; Texas Children's Hospital; Houston, TX USA
| | - Matthew C. Ross
- Alkek Center for Metagenomics and Microbiome Research Center, Houston, TX USA
| | - Scot E. Dowd
- MR DNA Molecular Research LP, Shallowater, TX USA
| | - Sabina A.V. Mir
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology; Baylor College of Medicine; Texas Children's Hospital; Houston, TX USA
| | - Tiffany D. Schaible
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology; Baylor College of Medicine; Texas Children's Hospital; Houston, TX USA
| | - Joseph F. Petrosino
- Alkek Center for Metagenomics and Microbiome Research Center, Houston, TX USA,Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology; Baylor College of Medicine; Houston, TX, USA,Human Genome Sequencing Center; Houston, TX, USA
| | - Richard Kellermayer
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology; Baylor College of Medicine; Texas Children's Hospital; Houston, TX USA,Correspondence to: Richard Kellermayer,
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Schaible TD, Harris RA, Dowd SE, Smith CW, Kellermayer R. Maternal methyl-donor supplementation induces prolonged murine offspring colitis susceptibility in association with mucosal epigenetic and microbiomic changes. Hum Mol Genet 2011; 20:1687-96. [PMID: 21296867 PMCID: PMC3115577 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddr044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2010] [Revised: 12/17/2010] [Accepted: 01/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Developmental epigenetic changes, such as DNA methylation, have been recognized as potential pathogenic factors in inflammatory bowel diseases, the hallmark of which is an exaggerated immune response against luminal microbes. A methyl-donor (MD) diet can modify DNA methylation at select murine genomic loci during early development. The components of the MDs are routinely incorporated into prenatal human supplements. Therefore, we studied the effects of maternal MD supplementation on offspring colitis susceptibility and colonic mucosal DNA methylation and gene expression changes in mice as a model. Additionally, we investigated the offspring mucosal microbiomic response to the maternal dietary supplementation. Colitis was induced by dextran sulfate sodium. Colonic mucosa from offspring of MD-supplemented mothers following reversal to control diet at weaning was interrogated by methylation-specific microarrays and pyrosequencing at postnatal days 30 (P30) and P90. Transcriptomic changes were analyzed by microarray profiling and real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. The mucosal microbiome was studied by high throughput pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA. Maternal MD supplementation induced a striking susceptibility to colitis in offspring. This phenotype was associated with colonic mucosal DNA methylation and expression changes. Metagenomic analyses did not reveal consistent bacteriomic differences between P30 and P90, but showed a prolonged effect of the diet on the offspring mucosal microbiome. In conclusion, maternal MD supplementation increases offspring colitis susceptibility that associates with persistent epigenetic and prolonged microbiomic changes. These findings underscore that epigenomic reprogramming relevant to mammalian colitis can occur during early development in response to maternal dietary modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany D. Schaible
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children's Hospital, USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - R. Alan Harris
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA and
| | - Scot E. Dowd
- Research and Testing Laboratory, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - C. Wayne Smith
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children's Hospital, USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Richard Kellermayer
- Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children's Hospital, USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center, Houston, TX, USA
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Abstract
The stunning complexity of the resident microbiota and the intricate pathways of microbial and host interactions provide a massive adaptive capacity for mammals. In this addendum we reflect on our recent publication on Toll-like receptor 2 deficiency related colonic mucosal epigenetic, immunologic and microbiomic changes. Our findings underscored the tremendous flexibility of the gut and its microbiota. This flexibility can provide means to overcome significant environmental or genetic challenges. In the meantime, the challenged intestinal system may become vulnerable to otherwise tolerable insults. In such instances, the fine-tuned mutualistic balance between the gut and its microflora may collapse leading to dysbiosis and disease. The ultimate challenge for biomedical research in these cases is to find optimal means for the restoration and maintenance of healthy host physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorottya Nagy-Szakal
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology; Department of Pediatrics; Baylor College of Medicine; Houston, TX USA
| | - Richard Kellermayer
- Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology; Department of Pediatrics; Baylor College of Medicine; Houston, TX USA,Texas Children's Hospital; Houston, TX USA
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