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Kothmann KH, Jons A, Wilhelmi B, Kasozi N, Graham L, Gent R, Atkin SL, Swart AC, Newell-Fugate AE. Non-invasive assessment of fecal glucocorticoid, progesterone, and androgen metabolites and microbiome in free-ranging southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) in South Africa. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2022; 329:114099. [PMID: 35914652 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2022.114099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Increased poaching in northern South Africa has necessitated relocation of large numbers of southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) to the Eastern Cape Province. The climate and grassland ecology of this province differ from that of northern South Africa which may impact the health of this species. This assessment of fecal steroid levels and microbiome in 10 free-ranging southern white rhinoceros in the Eastern Cape will provide insights into white rhinoceros physiology in this biome. Fecal steroid metabolites were analyzed using enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and ultra-performance convergence chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPC2-MS/MS). Fecal microbial composition was assessed via next generation sequencing. EIAs with antibodies raised against progesterone (P4; mouse monoclonal - CL425 clone), testosterone (T; rabbit polyclonal), corticosterone (B; sheep polyclonal) were utilized. Pregnant females had large quantities of fecal progesterone metabolites (FPMs) detected by CL425 EIA. Pregnant females also had native P4 and 11α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone (11αOHDHP4; 4-pregnen-11α-ol-3,20-dione) detected by UPC2-MS/MS but these concentrations were 1000-fold less than the concentrations of FPMs detected by the CL425 EIA. By contrast, non-pregnant females had FPM concentrations detected by CL425 EIA which were similar to native P4 and 11αOHDHP4 concentrations detected by UPC2-MS/MS. Mean fecal androgen metabolite (FAM) concentrations detected by the T EIA were similar between males and females. 11-ketoandrostenedione (11KA4) detected by UPC2-MS/MS was higher in females than males. However, there was no difference between males and females in the concentration of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGMs) detected by the B EIA. Bacteroidia, followed by Clostridia, was the most abundant classes of fecal microbes. The unfiltered microbiome of females was more diverse than that of males. The core fecal microbiome of young rhinoceros had a higher observed species richness (Shannon diversity index, and Simpson diversity index) than that of old rhinoceros. In the alpha male, immobilization was associated with an increase in FGMs detected by 11-deoxycortisol (S) detected by UPC2-MS/MS coupled with decreased abundance of Spirochaetia. We detected substantially different FAM and FPM concentrations from those previously reported for both captive and wild white rhinoceros. Comparison of our UPC2-MS/MS and EIA results underscores the fact that most EIAs are highly cross reactive for many steroid metabolites. Our data also demonstrates a distinct effect of stress not only on FGMs but also on the fecal microbiome. This is the first non-invasive assessment of fecal steroid metabolites by UPC2-MS/MS and the fecal microbiome in wild white rhinoceros.
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Affiliation(s)
- K H Kothmann
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - A Jons
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Health Science Center, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - B Wilhelmi
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140 South Africa
| | - N Kasozi
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140 South Africa
| | - L Graham
- Ikahala Veterinary Wildlife Services, Paterson 6131 South Africa
| | - R Gent
- Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600 South Africa
| | - S L Atkin
- Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Bahrain
| | - A C Swart
- Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600 South Africa; Department of Chemistry and Polymer Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600 South Africa
| | - A E Newell-Fugate
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
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Rodríguez-Hernández P, Cardador MJ, Arce L, Rodríguez-Estévez V. Analytical Tools for Disease Diagnosis in Animals via Fecal Volatilome. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2020; 52:917-932. [PMID: 33180561 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2020.1843130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Volatilome analysis is growing in attention for the diagnosis of diseases in animals and humans. In particular, volatilome analysis in fecal samples is starting to be proposed as a fast, easy and noninvasive method for disease diagnosis. Volatilome comprises volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are produced during both physiological and patho-physiological processes. Thus, VOCs from a pathological condition often differ from those of a healthy state and therefore the VOCs profile can be used in the detection of some diseases. Due to their strengths and advantages, feces are currently being used to obtain information related to health status in animals. However, they are complex samples, that can present problems for some analytical techniques and require special consideration in their use and preparation before analysis. This situation demands an effort to clarify which analytic options are currently being used in the research context to analyze the possibilities these offer, with the final objectives of contributing to develop a standardized methodology and to exploit feces potential as a diagnostic matrix. The current work reviews the studies focused on the diagnosis of animal diseases through fecal volatilome in order to evaluate the analytical methods used and their advantages and limitations. The alternatives found in the literature for sampling, storage, sample pretreatment, measurement and data treatment have been summarized, considering all the steps involved in the analytical process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - M J Cardador
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Fine Chemistry and Nanochemistry, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
| | - L Arce
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Fine Chemistry and Nanochemistry, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
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Rincon AV, Ostner J, Heistermann M, Deschner T. Measuring urinary cortisol and testosterone levels in male Barbary macaques: A comparison of EIA and LC-MS. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2019; 281:117-125. [PMID: 31145893 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2019.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The development of methods to quantify hormones from non-invasively collected samples such as urine or feces has facilitated endocrinology research on wild-living animals. To ensure that hormone measurements are biologically meaningful, method validations are strongly recommended for each new species or sample matrix. Our aim was to validate three commonly used enzyme immunoassays (EIA), one for analysis of cortisol and two for analysis of testosterone, to assess adrenocortical and gonadal endocrine activity, respectively, from the urine of male Barbary macaques. We compared EIA and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) results to determine if the EIA measurements truly reflect levels of the target hormone and to determine if antibody cross-reactivities with other steroids were potentially confounding results. Furthermore, we conducted a biological validation of testosterone to ensure that both EIA and LC-MS were able to capture physiologically meaningful differences in hormone levels. We found that cortisol measured by EIA correlated strongly with cortisol measured by LC-MS in both adult and immature males, without the need for deconjugation of steroids in the urine. Both testosterone EIAs correlated strongly with LC-MS in adult males, but only if steroids in the urine were deconjugated by enzymatic hydrolysis prior to analysis. However, in immature males, EIA and LC-MS results did not correlate significantly. Further correlation analyses suggest this is likely due to cross-reactivity of the testosterone antibodies with other adrenal steroids such as cortisol, DHEA, and likely others, which are present at much higher concentrations relative to testosterone in immature males. Testosterone levels were significantly higher in adult compared to immature males as measured by LC-MS but not as measured by EIA. Taken together, our results suggest that the testosterone EIAs are suitable to assess gonadal activity in adult but not immature males, and only if a hydrolysis of the urine is conducted prior to analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan V Rincon
- Department of Behavioral Ecology, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute for Zoology and Anthropology, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany; Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, Goettingen, Germany.
| | - Julia Ostner
- Department of Behavioral Ecology, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute for Zoology and Anthropology, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany; Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, Goettingen, Germany; Research Group Social Evolution in Primates, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Michael Heistermann
- Endocrinology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Tobias Deschner
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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Raño M, Valeggia CR, Kowalewski MM. Aged Black-and-Gold Howler Monkey Female (Alouatta caraya): A Sign of Reproductive Senescence? Folia Primatol (Basel) 2018. [PMID: 29514149 DOI: 10.1159/000485975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Reproductive senescence patterns have been scarcely studied in Neotropical primates. The few studies available on the hormonal profiles of aging female monkeys indicate that the decline of ovarian function in nonhuman primates may resemble the hormonal events associated with the perimenopause in women. In this study, we explore a reproductive hormone profile of an aged black-and-gold howler monkey female (Alouatta caraya) from a wild population in northeastern Argentina and compare this profile with that of a cycling female in the same population. As part of a larger study, we recorded sociosexual behaviors in adult and subadult females belonging to two groups, and we collected urine (n = 877) to determine the sex hormone profile of each female. These samples were analyzed using enzyme immunoassays for estrone conjugates and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PdG). We found differences in mean values of PdG between the younger (cycling) and the older female. These hormone values were lower in the older female, and she did not show any signs of cyclicity for either reproductive hormone. Our results show that the aging female in this wild population shows signs of ovarian senescence, indicated by low, acyclic levels of progesterone metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Raño
- Estación Biológica de Usos Multiples de Corrientes (EBCo), Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales-CONICET, Corrientes, Argentina
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Behringer V, Deschner T. Non-invasive monitoring of physiological markers in primates. Horm Behav 2017; 91:3-18. [PMID: 28202354 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Revised: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The monitoring of endocrine markers that inform about an animal's physiological state has become an invaluable tool for studying the behavioral ecology of primates. While the collection of blood samples usually requires the animal to be caught and immobilized, non-invasively collected samples of saliva, urine, feces or hair can be obtained without any major disturbance of the subject of interest. Such samples enable repeated collection which is required for matching behavioral information over long time periods with detailed information on endocrine markers. We start our review by giving an overview of endocrine and immune markers that have been successfully monitored in relation to topics of interest in primate behavioral ecology. These topics include reproductive, nutritional and health status, changes during ontogeny, social behavior such as rank relationships, aggression and cooperation as well as welfare and conservation issues. We continue by explaining which hormones can be measured in which matrices, and potential problems with measurements. We then describe different methods of hormone measurements and address their advantages and disadvantages. We finally emphasize the importance of thorough validation procedures when measuring a specific hormone in a new species or matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Behringer
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Department of Primatology, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Tobias Deschner
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Department of Primatology, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany
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Habumuremyi S, Stephens C, Fawcett KA, Deschner T, Robbins MM. Endocrine assessment of ovarian cycle activity in wild female mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Physiol Behav 2016; 157:185-95. [PMID: 26875514 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Revised: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Variability of fertility (i.e. number of births per female per year) has been reported in females of many primate species but only a few studies have explored the associated physiological and behavioral patterns. To investigate the proximate mechanisms of variability in fertility of wild female mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei), we quantified the occurrence of ovulation, matings, and successful pregnancies among females. We examined the profiles of immunoreactive pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (iPdG) for sixteen females (seven nulliparous and nine parous females, including one geriatric female; average sampling period for fecal sample collection and behavioral observations per female=175 days; SD=94 days, range=66-358 days) monitored by the staff of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund's Karisoke Research Center in Parc National des Volcans, Rwanda. We quantified ovarian cycles from iPdG profiles using an algorithm that we developed by adjusting the method of Kassam et al. (1996) to the characteristics of ovarian cycle profiles based on fecal hormone measurements. The mean length of ovarian cycles was 29±4 days (median: 28 days, N=13 cycles), similar to ovarian cycle lengths of other great apes and humans. As expected, we found that female mountain gorillas exhibit longer follicular phases (mean±SD: 21±3 days, N=13 cycles) than luteal phases (mean±SD: 8±3 days, N=13 cycles). We also found that the frequency of ovarian cycles was greater in parous females (i.e. 20 ovarian cycles across 44 periods of 28 days; 45.5%) than in nulliparous females (i.e. two ovarian cycles across 34 periods of 28 days; 6%). However, the frequency of days on which matings were observed did not differ significantly between parous and nulliparous females, nor between pregnant and non-pregnant females. Five pregnancies were detected with iPdG levels, but only three resulted in live births, indicating miscarriages of the other two. In sum, this study provides information on the underlying endocrine patterns of variation in fertility depending on parity, mating behavior, and pregnancy success in a critically endangered great ape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sosthene Habumuremyi
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany; Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International, 800 Cherokee Ave SE, Atlanta, GA 30315-1440, USA; Institut d'Enseignement Supérieur de Ruhengeri (INES-Ruhengeri), Musanze, North Province, Rwanda.
| | - Colleen Stephens
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Katie A Fawcett
- Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International, 800 Cherokee Ave SE, Atlanta, GA 30315-1440, USA
| | - Tobias Deschner
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Martha M Robbins
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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Kinoshita K, Kuze N, Kobayashi T, Miyakawa E, Narita H, Inoue-Murayama M, Idani G, Tsenkova R. Detection of urinary estrogen conjugates and creatinine using near infrared spectroscopy in Bornean orangutans (Pongo Pygmaeus). Primates 2015; 57:51-9. [PMID: 26561334 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-015-0501-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
For promoting in situ conservation, it is important to estimate the density distribution of fertile individuals, and there is a need for developing an easy monitoring method to discriminate between physiological states. To date, physiological state has generally been determined by measuring hormone concentration using radioimmunoassay or enzyme immunoassay (EIA) methods. However, these methods have rarely been applied in situ because of the requirements for a large amount of reagent, instruments, and a radioactive isotope. In addition, the proper storage of the sample (including urine and feces) on site until analysis is difficult. On the other hand, near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy requires no reagent and enables rapid measurement. In the present study, we attempted urinary NIR spectroscopy to determine the estrogen levels of orangutans in Japanese zoos and in the Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, Malaysia. Reflectance NIR spectra were obtained from urine stored using a filter paper. Filter paper is easy to use to store dried urine, even in the wild. Urinary estrogen and creatinine concentrations measured by EIA were used as the reference data of partial least square (PLS) regression of urinary NIR spectra. High accuracies (R(2) > 0.68) were obtained in both estrogen and creatinine regression models. In addition, the PLS regressions in both standards showed higher accuracies (R(2) > 0.70). Therefore, the present study demonstrates that urinary NIR spectra have the potential to estimate the estrogen and creatinine concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kodzue Kinoshita
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, 41-2 Kanrin, Inuyama, Aichi, 484-8506, Japan.
| | - Noko Kuze
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Kojimachi Business Center Building, 5-3-1 Kojimachi, Chiyoda, Tokyo, 102-0083, Japan.,The National Museum of Nature and Science, 4-1-1 Amakubo, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0005, Japan
| | - Toshio Kobayashi
- Zoorasia Yokohama Zoological Gardens, 1175-1 Kami-Shirane, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 241-0001, Japan
| | - Etsuko Miyakawa
- Zoorasia Yokohama Zoological Gardens, 1175-1 Kami-Shirane, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 241-0001, Japan.,Yokohama-city Kanazawa Zoo, 5-15-1 Kamariyahigashi, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-0042, Japan
| | - Hiromitsu Narita
- Kushiro City Zoo, 11 Shimonini-shibetsu, Akan, Kushiro, Hokkaido, 085-0204, Japan
| | - Miho Inoue-Murayama
- Wildlife Research Center, Kyoto University, 2-24 Tanaka-Sekiden, Sakyo, Kyoto, 606-8203, Japan
| | - Gen'ichi Idani
- Wildlife Research Center, Kyoto University, 2-24 Tanaka-Sekiden, Sakyo, Kyoto, 606-8203, Japan
| | - Roumiana Tsenkova
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe, Hyogo, 657-8501, Japan
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