Ranging patterns of Japanese macaques in the coniferous forest of Yakushima: Home range shift and travel rate

Determinants of macaques' space use: A test for the ecological constraints model using GPS collars

As a central topic in Behavioral Ecology, animal space use involves dynamic responses to social and ecological factors. We collared 22 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) from six groups on Neilingding Island, China, and collected 80,625 hourly fixes over a year. Using this high-resolution location data set, we quantified the macaques' space use at the individual level and tested the ecological constraints model while considering various environmental and human interfering factors. As predicted by the ecological constraints model, macaques in larger groups had longer daily path lengths (DPLs) and larger home ranges. We found an inverted U-shape relationship between mean daily temperatures and DPLs, indicating that macaques traveled farther on mild temperature days, while they decreased DPLs when temperatures were too high or too low. Anthropogenic food subsidies were positively correlated to DPLs, while the effect of rainfall was negative. Macaques decreased their DPLs and core areas when more flowers and less leaves were available, suggesting that macaques shifted their space use patterns to adapt to the seasonal differences in food resources. By applying GPS collars on a large number of individuals living on a small island, we gained valuable insights into within-group exploitation competition in wild rhesus macaques.

Foraging Strategies of Invasive Macaca fascicularis may Promote Plant Invasion in Mauritius

The effectiveness of seed dispersal by frugivorous primates may vary between seasons and plant species, depending on foraging strategies. We investigated how foraging strategies of an invasive frugivorous primate (the long-tailed macaque, Macaca fascicularis) affect seed dispersal effectiveness (SDE) between native and invasive plants in Mauritius’ native remnant forests. By collecting behavioural data on a group of partially habituated macaques via scan sampling from December 2019 until December 2020 (mean 19.2 ± SD 7.3 hours per month), we investigated seasonal patterns in diet, home range, and fruit availability to identify foraging strategies and determine fruit preference. We simultaneously assessed SDE for invasive vs native plants by quantifying native and invasive fruits consumed or dropped intact by macaques during feeding bouts (n = 114). Macaques fed increasingly on ripe invasive fruits and less on other food items as fruit availability increased, due to preference for invasive fruits and disproportionate availability of invasive vs native fruits. When fruit became scarcer, macaques had larger home ranges, increasingly fed on scarce unripe native and invasive fruits, and expanded their diet by eating orchard crops, indicating use of energy-maximizing strategies. Macaques consumed more native than invasive fruits when unripe and commonly destroyed seeds of native fruits, indicating higher SDE for invasive vs native plants. Higher discard rates of unripe compared to ripe fruits further reinforced these differences in SDE. Our results highlight potential facilitation of plant invasion by an invasive primate, due to foraging strategies shaped by the availability of invasive fruits.

Ecotourism Disturbance on an Endemic Endangered Primate in the Huangshan Man and the Biosphere Reserve of China: A Way to Move Forward

Simple Summary

How to realize the sustainability of economic development and animal protection is a significant problem faced by Man and the Biosphere reserves. Although there are many theoretical frameworks, there is still a lack of supportive ecological evidence. This study analyzed aspects of the local human population, economic growth, number of tourists, and ticket income data of Huangshan Man and Biosphere Reserve (HMBR) as well as population and distribution changes in the flagship species (Tibetan macaque) in HMBR over a 30 year period. We found that after 30 years of implementing a sustainable development strategy in HMBR, the local economy and the population of Tibetan macaques have increased simultaneously. With economic growth, more funds for protection have been invested, improving the local environment significantly and expanding the existing distribution of the Tibetan macaque population. This study provides strong evidence for the sustainable development of Man and Biosphere reserves. We propose that economic and wildlife population growth and distribution area measures constitute a critical standard for the evaluation of sustainable development.

Abstract

The primary purpose of the Man and the Biosphere Program is the sustainable development of both the economy and nature conservation activities. Although the effectiveness of eco-tourism to reach this goal has been proposed, due to the lack of long-term monitoring data and a model species, there has been no obvious mechanism to evaluate the effectiveness of this policy. This study explored the effectiveness of the sustainable development policy of HMBR based on 30 years data of monitoring the Tibetan macaque, local human population, visitors, and annual ecotourism income in Huangshan by estimating species habitat suitability and the impact of ecotourism. The results showed increases in the income for the local human population, the number of visitors, and annual eco-tourism. Simultaneously, the reserve’s Tibetan macaque population size and suitable habitat areas increased. The macaques expanded their habitat to the low-altitude buffer zone (400–800 m), an area with lower eco-tourism disturbance. Scenic spots had a significant negative impact on habitat suitability (the substantially increased contributions of scenic spots from 0.71% to 32.88%). Our results and methods provide a suitable evaluation framework for monitoring the sustainable development and effectiveness of eco-tourism and wildlife conservation in Man and the Biosphere reserves.

Seasonality in daily movement patterns of mandrills revealed by combining direct tracking and camera traps

Movement is a fundamental characteristic of animals, but challenging to measure noninvasively. Noninvasive methods for measuring travel have different weaknesses, so multiple techniques need to be applied multiple techniques for reliable inferences. We used two methods, direct tracking and camera trapping, to examine the variation in time and seasonal differences in movement rates of mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx), an elusive primate that lives in large groups in central Africa. In a 400-km2 rainforest area in Moukalaba-Doudou National Park, Gabon, we tracked unidentified groups 46 times from 2009 to 2013. We systematically placed 157 terrestrial camera traps in the same area from 2012 to 2014 and recorded groups 309 times. Generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs) of the tracking data indicated that the group travel speed varied with time and season. In the fruiting season, the movement rate fluctuated with time in a bimodal pattern, whereas in the nonfruiting season, it increased monotonously with time. The predicted day range was longer in the fruiting season (6.98 km) than in the nonfruiting season (6.06 km). These seasonal differences suggest responses to changes in food resources and temperature. Camera-trap detection rates showed similar temporal and seasonal patterns to the tracking data, allowing us to generalize our findings to the population level. Moreover, cameras never detected mandrills at night, and we observed that they slept high in trees and hardly moved until the next morning, all suggesting their strict avoidance of nighttime movement. This study demonstrated the significance of the multiple-method approach in drawing robust conclusions on temporal patterns of animal movement.

Population dynamics and ranging behaviours of provisioned silvered langur (Trachypithecus cristatus) in Peninsular Malaysia

Tourists are attracted to the Bukit Melawati Kuala Selangor (BMKS) of Peninsular Malaysia, a small hill park, for both its status as a historical site and the free-ranging silvered langurs (Trachypithecus cristatus) that come for provisioning. We assessed the population trends and group sizes of T. cristatus over 10 years in the BMKS and examined their ranging patterns. Comparisons of observed populations between 2005 (190 individuals) and 2017 (193 individuals) revealed the stable demography and group sizes of the six T. cristatus groups in the BMKS. Based on a total of 185 location points of the six groups in 2017, their mean ranging area was 3.6 ha with a range of 0.86-6.93 ha with extensive spatial overlap. We also found a significant positive relationship between the six groups' ranges and group sizes in 2017. Additionally, qualitative ecological comparisons with a previous study on T. cristatus in 1965 (before provisioning) suggest that the artificial food supply in the study area could modify the population dynamics and socioecology of T. cristatus. The modifications might alter their range size and territoriality in the BMKS. Overall, we found that provisioning had negative effects on the ecology of T. cristatus in the BMKS. Therefore, modifying management policies, such as banning feeding and implementing educational programs, may contribute to their proper conservation.