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Yao Y, Muench M, Alle T, Zhang B, Lucero B, Perez‐Tremble R, McGrosso D, Newman M, Gonzalez DJ, Lee VM, Ballatore C, Brunden KR. A small-molecule microtubule-stabilizing agent safely reduces Aβ plaque and tau pathology in transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 2024; 20:4540-4558. [PMID: 38884283 PMCID: PMC11247666 DOI: 10.1002/alz.13875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Intraneuronal inclusions composed of tau protein are found in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other tauopathies. Tau normally binds microtubules (MTs), and its disengagement from MTs and misfolding in AD is thought to result in MT abnormalities. We previously identified triazolopyrimidine-containing MT-stabilizing compounds that provided benefit in AD mouse models and herein describe the characterization and efficacy testing of an optimized candidate, CNDR-51997. METHODS CNDR-51997 underwent pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, safety pharmacology, and mouse tolerability testing. In addition, the compound was examined for efficacy in 5XFAD amyloid beta (Aβ) plaque mice and PS19 tauopathy mice. RESULTS CNDR-51997 significantly reduced Aβ plaques in 5XFAD mice and tau pathology in PS19 mice, with the latter also showing attenuated axonal dystrophy and gliosis. CNDR-51997 was well tolerated at doses that exceeded efficacy doses, with a good safety pharmacology profile. DISCUSSION CNDR-51997 may be a candidate for advancement as a potential therapeutic agent for AD and/or other tauopathies. Highlights There is evidence of microtubule alterations (MT) in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain and in mouse models of AD pathology. Intermittent dosing with an optimized, brain-penetrant MT-stabilizing small-molecule, CNDR-51997, reduced both Aβ plaque and tau inclusion pathology in established mouse models of AD. CNDR-51997 attenuated axonal dystrophy and gliosis in a tauopathy mouse model, with a strong trend toward reduced hippocampal neuron loss. CNDR-51997 is well tolerated in mice at doses that are meaningfully greater than required for efficacy in AD mouse models, and the compound has a good safety pharmacology profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuemang Yao
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease ResearchPerelman School of MedicineUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Megan Muench
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease ResearchPerelman School of MedicineUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Thibault Alle
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaSan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Bin Zhang
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease ResearchPerelman School of MedicineUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Bobby Lucero
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryUniversity of CaliforniaSan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Roxanne Perez‐Tremble
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease ResearchPerelman School of MedicineUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Dominic McGrosso
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of CaliforniaSan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Mira Newman
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease ResearchPerelman School of MedicineUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - David J. Gonzalez
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaSan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of CaliforniaSan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Virginia M.‐Y. Lee
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease ResearchPerelman School of MedicineUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Carlo Ballatore
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaSan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Kurt R. Brunden
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease ResearchPerelman School of MedicineUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
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2
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Zhao X, Zeng W, Xu H, Sun Z, Hu Y, Peng B, McBride JD, Duan J, Deng J, Zhang B, Kim SJ, Zoll B, Saito T, Sasaguri H, Saido TC, Ballatore C, Yao H, Wang Z, Trojanowski JQ, Brunden KR, Lee VMY, He Z. A microtubule stabilizer ameliorates protein pathogenesis and neurodegeneration in mouse models of repetitive traumatic brain injury. Sci Transl Med 2023; 15:eabo6889. [PMID: 37703352 PMCID: PMC10787216 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abo6889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
Tau pathogenesis is a hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although the events leading to initial tau misfolding and subsequent tau spreading in patient brains are largely unknown, traumatic brain injury (TBI) may be a risk factor for tau-mediated neurodegeneration. Using a repetitive TBI (rTBI) paradigm, we report that rTBI induced somatic accumulation of phosphorylated and misfolded tau, as well as neurodegeneration across multiple brain areas in 7-month-old tau transgenic PS19 mice but not wild-type (WT) mice. rTBI accelerated somatic tau pathology in younger PS19 mice and WT mice only after inoculation with tau preformed fibrils and AD brain-derived pathological tau (AD-tau), respectively, suggesting that tau seeds are needed for rTBI-induced somatic tau pathology. rTBI further disrupted axonal microtubules and induced punctate tau and TAR DNA binding protein 43 (TDP-43) pathology in the optic tracts of WT mice. These changes in the optic tract were associated with a decline of visual function. Treatment with a brain-penetrant microtubule-stabilizing molecule reduced rTBI-induced tau, TDP-43 pathogenesis, and neurodegeneration in the optic tract as well as visual dysfunction. Treatment with the microtubule stabilizer also alleviated rTBI-induced tau pathology in the cortices of AD-tau-inoculated WT mice. These results indicate that rTBI facilitates abnormal microtubule organization, pathological tau formation, and neurodegeneration and suggest microtubule stabilization as a potential therapeutic avenue for TBI-induced neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Zhao
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201210, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Wen Zeng
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201210, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hong Xu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Institute on Aging and Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Zihan Sun
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201210, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yingxin Hu
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201210, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Beibei Peng
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Jennifer D McBride
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Institute on Aging and Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jiangtao Duan
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Juan Deng
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Institute on Aging and Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Soo-Jung Kim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Institute on Aging and Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Bryan Zoll
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Institute on Aging and Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Takashi Saito
- Laboratory of Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- Department of Neurocognitive Science, Institute of Brain Science, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Science, Nagoya, Aichi 467-8601, Japan
| | - Hiroki Sasaguri
- Laboratory of Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Takaomi C Saido
- Laboratory of Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Carlo Ballatore
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Haishan Yao
- Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Zhaoyin Wang
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201210, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - John Q Trojanowski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Institute on Aging and Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Kurt R Brunden
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Institute on Aging and Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Virginia M-Y Lee
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Institute on Aging and Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Zhuohao He
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201210, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
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3
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Jang J, Yeo S, Baek S, Jung HJ, Lee MS, Choi SH, Choe Y. Abnormal accumulation of extracellular vesicles in hippocampal dystrophic axons and regulation by the primary cilia in Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2023; 11:142. [PMID: 37667395 PMCID: PMC10478284 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-023-01637-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Dystrophic neurites (DNs) are abnormal axons and dendrites that are swollen or deformed in various neuropathological conditions. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), DNs play a crucial role in impairing neuronal communication and function, and they may also contribute to the accumulation and spread of amyloid beta (Aβ) in the brain of AD patients. However, it is still a challenge to understand the DNs of specific neurons that are vulnerable to Aβ in the pathogenesis of AD. To shed light on the development of radiating DNs, we examined enriched dystrophic hippocampal axons in a mouse model of AD using a three-dimensional rendering of projecting neurons. We employed the anterograde spread of adeno-associated virus (AAV)1 and conducted proteomic analysis of synaptic compartments obtained from hippocampo-septal regions. Our findings revealed that DNs were formed due to synaptic loss at the axon terminals caused by the accumulation of extracellular vesicle (EV). Abnormal EV-mediated transport and exocytosis were identified in association with primary cilia, indicating their involvement in the accumulation of EVs at presynaptic terminals. To further address the regulation of DNs by primary cilia, we conducted knockdown of the Ift88 gene in hippocampal neurons, which impaired EV-mediated secretion of Aβ and promoted accumulation of axonal spheroids. Using single-cell RNA sequencing, we identified the septal projecting hippocampal somatostatin neurons (SOM) as selectively vulnerable to Aβ with primary cilia dysfunction and vesicle accumulation. Our study suggests that DNs in AD are initiated by the ectopic accumulation of EVs at the neuronal axon terminals, which is affected by neuronal primary cilia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Seungeun Yeo
- Korea Brain Research Institute, Daegu, 41068, Korea
| | | | | | - Mi Suk Lee
- Korea Brain Research Institute, Daegu, 41068, Korea
| | | | - Youngshik Choe
- Korea Brain Research Institute, Daegu, 41068, Korea.
- , Daegu, Korea.
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4
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Gibbons GS, Gould H, Lee VMY, Crowe A, Brunden KR. Identification of small molecules and related targets that modulate tau pathology in a seeded primary neuron model. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:104876. [PMID: 37269953 PMCID: PMC10331484 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.104876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the presence of tau protein inclusions and amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques in the brain, with Aβ peptides generated by cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by BACE1 and γ-secretase. We previously described a primary rat neuron assay in which tau inclusions form from endogenous rat tau after seeding cells with insoluble tau isolated from the human AD brain. Here, we used this assay to screen an annotated library of ∼8700 biologically active small molecules for their ability to reduce immuno-stained neuronal tau inclusions. Compounds causing ≥30% inhibition of tau aggregates with <25% loss of DAPI-positive cell nuclei underwent further confirmation testing and assessment of neurotoxicity, and non-neurotoxic hits were subsequently analyzed for inhibitory activity in an orthogonal ELISA that quantified multimeric rat tau species. Of the 173 compounds meeting all criteria, a subset of 55 inhibitors underwent concentration-response testing and 46 elicited a concentration-dependent reduction of neuronal tau inclusions that were distinct from measures of toxicity. Among the confirmed inhibitors of tau pathology were BACE1 inhibitors, several of which, along with γ-secretase inhibitors/modulators, caused a concentration-dependent lowering of neuronal tau inclusions and a reduction of insoluble tau by immunoblotting, although they did not decrease soluble phosphorylated tau species. In conclusion, we have identified a diverse set of small molecules and related targets that reduce neuronal tau inclusions. Notably, these include BACE1 and γ-secretase inhibitors, suggesting that a cleavage product from a shared substrate, such as APP, might affect tau pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett S Gibbons
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Hailey Gould
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Virginia M-Y Lee
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Alex Crowe
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Kurt R Brunden
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
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5
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Hu MB, Gao KX, Wang Y, Liu YJ. Characterization of Polysaccharides from the Pericarp of Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim by Saccharide Mapping and Their Neuroprotective Effects. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28041813. [PMID: 36838801 PMCID: PMC9966022 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28041813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The pericarp of Zanthoxylum bungeanum maxim (PZM) is a commonly used spice and herbal medicine in China. In the present study, the structural characteristics of PPZM were investigated by saccharide mapping after enzymatic digestion by using high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) and polysaccharide analysis by using carbohydrate gel electrophoresis (PACE). The mechanisms of protective effects of PPZM on Aβ25-35-induced oxidative damage were explored in PC12 cells. The results showed that PPZM contained 1,4-α-D-galactosidic, 1,4-α-D-galactosiduronic, and (1→4)-β-D-glucosidic linkages. Pretreatment with PPZM significantly increased the cell viability of Aβ25-35-injured PC12 cells. Flow cytometry and Hoechst/PI staining indicated that PPZM gradually relieved the apoptosis of the Aβ25-25-treated cells. PPZM markedly decreased the ROS level of PC12 cells and suppressed Aβ25-35-induced oxidative stress by increasing the SOD level, and decreasing the level of MDA and LDH. The mRNA expressions of caspase-3 and Bax were significantly downregulated, and Bcl-2 expression was upregulated by treatment with PPZM. PPZM significantly increased the mRNA expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 in Aβ25-35 treated cells. The results indicated that PPZM alleviated apoptosis and oxidative stress induced by Aβ25-25 through the inhibition of mitochondrial dependent apoptosis and activation of Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. PPZM can be used as a potential protective agent against Aβ25-25-induced neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Bian Hu
- Institute of Pharmaceutical & Food Engineering, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Jinzhong 030619, China
- Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Processing of Shanxi Province, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Jinzhong 030619, China
| | - Kui-Xu Gao
- Institute of Pharmaceutical & Food Engineering, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Jinzhong 030619, China
- Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Processing of Shanxi Province, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Jinzhong 030619, China
| | - Yao Wang
- Institute of Pharmaceutical & Food Engineering, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Jinzhong 030619, China
- Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Processing of Shanxi Province, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Jinzhong 030619, China
| | - Yu-Jie Liu
- Institute of Pharmaceutical & Food Engineering, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Jinzhong 030619, China
- Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Processing of Shanxi Province, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Jinzhong 030619, China
- Correspondence:
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6
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Quan L, Moreno-Gonzalez I, Xie Z, Gamez N, Vegas-Gomez L, Song Q, Gu J, Lin W, Gomez-Gutierrez R, Wu T. A near-infrared probe for detecting and interposing amyloid beta oligomerization in early Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 2023; 19:456-466. [PMID: 35436382 DOI: 10.1002/alz.12673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The misfolding and deposition of amyloid beta (Aβ) in human brain is the main hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. One of the drivers of Alzheimer´s pathogenesis is the production of soluble oligomeric Aβ, which could potentially serve as a biomarker of AD. METHODS Given that the diphenylalanine (FF) at the C-terminus of Aβ fragments plays a key role in inducing the AD pathology, based on the hydrophobic structure of FF, we synthesized a near-infrared BF2-dipyrrolmethane fluorescent imaging probe (NB) to detect both soluble and insoluble Aβ. RESULTS We found that NB not only binds Aβ, particularly oligomeric Aβ, but also interposes self-assembly of Aβ through π-π interaction between NB and FF. CONCLUSION This work holds great promise in the early detection of AD and may also provide an innovative approach to decelerate and even halt AD onset and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Quan
- Jiangsu Provincial Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Materials and Advanced Medical Devices, Faculty of Mechanical and Material Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huai'an, Jiangsu Province, China.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Ines Moreno-Gonzalez
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA.,Department of Cell Biology, Genetic and Physiology, Faculty of Sciences, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Spain.,Networking Research Center on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
| | - Zhigang Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Nazaret Gamez
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA.,Department of Cell Biology, Genetic and Physiology, Faculty of Sciences, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Spain
| | - Laura Vegas-Gomez
- Department of Cell Biology, Genetic and Physiology, Faculty of Sciences, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Spain
| | - Qinyong Song
- Jiangsu Provincial Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Materials and Advanced Medical Devices, Faculty of Mechanical and Material Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huai'an, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jianhua Gu
- Electron Microscopy Core, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Wenhai Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Ruben Gomez-Gutierrez
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA.,Department of Cell Biology, Genetic and Physiology, Faculty of Sciences, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Spain
| | - Tianfu Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
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7
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Alle T, Varricchio C, Yao Y, Lucero B, Nzou G, Demuro S, Muench M, Vuong KD, Oukoloff K, Cornec AS, Francisco KR, Caffrey CR, Lee VMY, Smith AB, Brancale A, Brunden KR, Ballatore C. Microtubule-Stabilizing 1,2,4-Triazolo[1,5- a]pyrimidines as Candidate Therapeutics for Neurodegenerative Disease: Matched Molecular Pair Analyses and Computational Studies Reveal New Structure-Activity Insights. J Med Chem 2023; 66:435-459. [PMID: 36534051 PMCID: PMC9841533 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Microtubule (MT)-stabilizing 1,2,4-triazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidines (TPDs) hold promise as candidate therapeutics for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative conditions. However, depending on the choice of substituents around the TPD core, these compounds can elicit markedly different cellular phenotypes that likely arise from the interaction of TPD congeners with either one or two spatially distinct binding sites within tubulin heterodimers (i.e., the seventh site and the vinca site). In the present study, we report the design, synthesis, and evaluation of a series of new TPD congeners, as well as matched molecular pair analyses and computational studies, that further elucidate the structure-activity relationships of MT-active TPDs. These studies led to the identification of novel MT-normalizing TPD candidates that exhibit favorable ADME-PK, including brain penetration and oral bioavailability, as well as brain pharmacodynamic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibault Alle
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Carmine Varricchio
- Cardiff
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff CF103NB, U.K.
| | - Yuemang Yao
- Center
for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Bobby Lucero
- Department
of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University
of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Goodwell Nzou
- Center
for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Stefania Demuro
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Megan Muench
- Center
for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Khoa D. Vuong
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Killian Oukoloff
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Anne-Sophie Cornec
- Department
of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, 231 South 34th St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
| | - Karol R. Francisco
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Conor R. Caffrey
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Virginia M.-Y. Lee
- Center
for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Amos B. Smith
- Department
of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, 231 South 34th St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
| | - Andrea Brancale
- Cardiff
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff CF103NB, U.K.
| | - Kurt R. Brunden
- Center
for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Carlo Ballatore
- Skaggs
School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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8
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Huang Q, Zhang C, Dong S, Han J, Qu S, Xie T, Zhao H, Shi Y. Asafoetida exerts neuroprotective effect on oxidative stress induced apoptosis through PI3K/Akt/GSK3β/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Chin Med 2022; 17:83. [PMID: 35794585 PMCID: PMC9258148 DOI: 10.1186/s13020-022-00630-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a serious neurodegenerative disease and there is currently no effective treatment for AD progression. The use of TCM as a potential treatment strategy for AD is an evolving field of investigation. Asafoetida (ASF), an oleo-gum-resin isolated from Ferula assa-foetida root, has been proven to possess antioxidative potential and neuroprotective effects, which is closely associated with the neurological disorders. However, the efficacy and further mechanisms of ASF in AD experimental models are still unclear. Methods A cognitive impairment of mouse model induced by scopolamine was established to determine the neuroprotective effects of ASF in vivo, as shown by behavioral tests, biochemical assays, Nissl staining, TUNEL staining, Immunohistochemistry, western blot and qPCR. Furthermore, the PC12 cells stimulated by H2O2 were applied to explore the underlying mechanisms of ASF-mediated efficacy. Then, the UPLCM analysis and integrated network pharmacology approach was utilized to identified the main constitutes of ASF and the potential target of ASF against AD, respectively. And the main identified targets were validated in vitro by western blot, qPCR and immunofluorescence staining. Results In vivo, ASF treatment significantly ameliorated cognitive impairment induced by scopolamine, as evidenced by improving learning and memory abilities, and reducing neuronal injury, cholinergic system impairment, oxidative stress and apoptosis in the hippocampus of mice. In vitro, our results validated that ASF can dose-dependently attenuated H2O2-induced pathological oxidative stress in PC12 cells by inhibiting ROS and MDA production, as well as promoting the activities of SOD, CAT, GSH. We also found that ASF can significantly suppressed the apoptosis rate of PC12 cells increased by H2O2 exposure, which was confirmed by flow cytometry analysis. Moreover, treatment with ASF obviously attenuated H2O2-induced increase in caspase-3 and Bax expression levels, as well as decrease in Bcl-2 protein expression. KEGG enrichment analysis indicated that the PI3K/Akt/GSK3β/Nrf2 /HO-1pathway may be involved in the regulation of cognitive impairment by ASF. The results of western blot, qPCR and immunofluorescence staining of vitro assay proved it. Conclusions Collectively, our work first uncovered the significant neuroprotective effect of ASF in treating AD in vivo. Then, we processed a series of vitro experiments to clarify the biological mechanism action. These data demonstrate that ASF can inhibit oxidative stress induced neuronal apoptosis to foster the prevention of AD both in vivo and in vitro, and it may exert the function of inhibiting AD through PI3K/Akt/GSK3β/Nrf2/HO-1pathway. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13020-022-00630-7.
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9
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Tao D, Xie C, Fu S, Rong S, Song S, Ye H, Jaffrezic-Renault N, Guo Z. Thionine-functionalized three-dimensional carbon nanomaterial-based aptasensor for analysis of Aβ oligomers in serum. Anal Chim Acta 2021; 1183:338990. [PMID: 34627525 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2021.338990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
How to sensitively detect early biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is nowadays, one of the major challenges. In this work, Aβ oligomers (AβO), one of the AD biomarkers, was analyzed using an electrochemical aptasensor, which was prepared based on thionine (Th) - functionalized three - dimensional carbon nanomaterials (reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and multi-wall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)) immobilized DNA-aptamer. Th, a positively charged planar aromatic molecule, form many π - π conjugated structures with rGO and MWCNTs, then improving the structural stability, electron transfer and the capacitive properties of Th-rGO-MWCNTs nanocomposites. Under the optimal conditions, differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) current responses decreased with the increase of AβO concentration. The obtained AβO aptasensor presented a wide linear range of 0.0443 pM-443.00 pM and limit of detection (LOD) was 10 fM. Meanwhile, AβO aptasensor displayed remarkable stability and selectivity. It has a great potential for early diagnosis of AD in human real serum samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Tao
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Occupational Hazard Identification and Control, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, PR China; Resources and Environmental Engineering College, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430081, PR China
| | - Chang Xie
- School of Public Health, Medical College, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, PR China
| | - Sinan Fu
- School of Public Health, Medical College, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, PR China
| | - Shuang Rong
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Academy of Nutrition and Health, School of Public Health, Medical College, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, PR China
| | - Shizhen Song
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Occupational Hazard Identification and Control, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, PR China; Resources and Environmental Engineering College, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430081, PR China; School of Public Health, Medical College, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, PR China
| | - Huarong Ye
- China Resources & Wisco General Hospital, Wuhan, 430080, PR China.
| | - Nicole Jaffrezic-Renault
- University of Lyon, Institute of Analytical Sciences, UMR-CNRS 5280, 5 La Doua Street, Villeurbanne, 69100, France.
| | - Zhenzhong Guo
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Occupational Hazard Identification and Control, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430065, PR China.
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10
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Delizannis AT, Nonneman A, Tsering W, De Bondt A, Van den Wyngaert I, Zhang B, Meymand E, Olufemi MF, Koivula P, Maimaiti S, Trojanowski JQ, Lee VMY, Brunden KR. Effects of microglial depletion and TREM2 deficiency on Aβ plaque burden and neuritic plaque tau pathology in 5XFAD mice. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2021; 9:150. [PMID: 34503586 PMCID: PMC8428059 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-021-01251-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Dystrophic neuronal processes harboring neuritic plaque (NP) tau pathology are found in association with Aβ plaques in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain. Microglia are also in proximity to these plaques and microglial gene variants are known risk factors in AD, including loss-of-function variants of TREM2. We have further investigated the role of Aβ plaque-associated microglia in 5XFAD mice in which NP tau pathology forms after intracerebral injection of AD brain-derived pathologic tau (AD-tau), focusing on the consequences of reduced TREM2 expression and microglial depletion after treatment with the colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSFR1) inhibitor, PLX3397. Young 5XFAD mice treated with PLX3397 had a large reduction of brain microglia, including cortical plaque-associated microglia, with a significant reduction of Aβ plaque burden in the cortex. A corresponding decrease in cortical APP-positive dystrophic processes and NP tau pathology were observed after intracerebral AD-tau injection in the PLX3397-treated 5XFAD mice. Consistent with prior reports, 5XFAD × TREM2-/- mice showed a significant reduction of plaque-associated microglial, whereas 5XFAD × TREM2+/- mice had significantly more plaque-associated microglia than 5XFAD × TREM2-/- mice. Nonetheless, AD-tau injected 5XFAD × TREM2+/- mice showed greatly increased AT8-positive NP tau relative to 5XFAD × TREM2+/+ mice. Expression profiling revealed that 5XFAD × TREM2+/- mice had a disease-associated microglial (DAM) gene expression profile in the brain that was generally intermediate between 5XFAD × TREM2+/+ and 5XFAD × TREM2-/- mice. Microarray analysis revealed significant differences in cortical and hippocampal gene expression between AD-tau injected 5XFAD × TREM2+/- and 5XFAD × TREM2-/- mice, including pathways linked to microglial function. These data suggest there is not a simple correlation between the extent of microglia plaque interaction and plaque-associated neuritic damage. Moreover, the differences in gene expression and microglial phenotype between TREM2+/- and TREM2-/- mice suggest that the former may better model the single copy TREM2 variants associated with AD risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Argyro Thalia Delizannis
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Annelies Nonneman
- Neurosience, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV (Division of Johnson & Johnson), Turnhoutseweg 30, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Wangchen Tsering
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - An De Bondt
- Discovery Sciences, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV (Division of Johnson & Johnson), Turnhoutseweg 30, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Ilse Van den Wyngaert
- Discovery Sciences, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV (Division of Johnson & Johnson), Turnhoutseweg 30, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Bin Zhang
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Emily Meymand
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Modupe F Olufemi
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Pyry Koivula
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Shaniya Maimaiti
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - John Q Trojanowski
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Virginia M-Y Lee
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Kurt R Brunden
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce St, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
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11
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Cross DJ, Huber BR, Silverman MA, Cline MM, Gill TB, Cross CG, Cook DG, Minoshima S. Intranasal Paclitaxel Alters Alzheimer's Disease Phenotypic Features in 3xTg-AD Mice. J Alzheimers Dis 2021; 83:379-394. [PMID: 34308901 DOI: 10.3233/jad-210109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microtubule stabilizing drugs, commonly used as anti-cancer therapeutics, have been proposed for treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, many do not cross the blood-brain barrier. OBJECTIVE This research investigated if paclitaxel (PTX) delivered via the intranasal (IN) route could alter the phenotypic progression of AD in 3xTg-AD mice. METHODS We administered intranasal PTX in 3XTg-AD mice (3xTg-AD n = 15, 10 weeks and n = 10, 44 weeks, PTX: 0.6 mg/kg or 0.9%saline (SAL)) at 2-week intervals. After treatment, 3XTg-AD mice underwent manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging to measure in vivo axonal transport. In a separate 3XTg-AD cohort, PTX-treated mice were tested in a radial water tread maze at 52 weeks of age after four treatments, and at 72 weeks of age, anxiety was assessed by an elevated-plus maze after 14 total treatments. RESULTS PTX increased axonal transport rates in treated 3XTg-AD compared to controls (p≤0.003). Further investigation using an in vitro neuron model of Aβ-induced axonal transport disruption confirmed PTX prevented axonal transport deficits. Confocal microscopy after treatment found fewer phospho-tau containing neurons (5.25±3.8 versus 8.33±2.5, p < 0.04) in the CA1, altered microglia, and reduced reactive astrocytes. PTX improved performance of 3xTg-AD on the water tread maze compared to controls and not significantly different from WT (Day 5, 143.8±43 versus 91.5±77s and Day 12, 138.3±52 versus 107.7±75s for SAL versus PTX). Elevated plus maze revealed that PTX-treated 3xTg-AD mice spent more time exploring open arms (Open arm 129.1±80 versus 20.9±31s for PTX versus SAL, p≤0.05). CONCLUSION Taken collectively, these findings indicate that intranasal-administered microtubule-stabilizing drugs may offer a potential therapeutic option for treating AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donna J Cross
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences>, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Bertrand R Huber
- Boston University Alzheimer's Disease and CTE Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Michael A Silverman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada.,Centre for Cell Biology, Development, and Disease, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Marcella M Cline
- The Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center (GRECC), Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA, USA.,Departments of Medicine, Pharmacology, Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Trevor B Gill
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Chloe G Cross
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences>, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - David G Cook
- The Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center (GRECC), Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA, USA.,Departments of Medicine, Pharmacology, Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Satoshi Minoshima
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences>, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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12
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Oukoloff K, Nzou G, Varricchio C, Lucero B, Alle T, Kovalevich J, Monti L, Cornec AS, Yao Y, James MJ, Trojanowski JQ, Lee VMY, Smith AB, Brancale A, Brunden KR, Ballatore C. Evaluation of the Structure-Activity Relationship of Microtubule-Targeting 1,2,4-Triazolo[1,5- a]pyrimidines Identifies New Candidates for Neurodegenerative Tauopathies. J Med Chem 2021; 64:1073-1102. [PMID: 33411523 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c01605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Studies in tau and Aβ plaque transgenic mouse models demonstrated that brain-penetrant microtubule (MT)-stabilizing compounds, including the 1,2,4-triazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidines, hold promise as candidate treatments for Alzheimer's disease and related neurodegenerative tauopathies. Triazolopyrimidines have already been investigated as anticancer agents; however, the antimitotic activity of these compounds does not always correlate with stabilization of MTs in cells. Indeed, previous studies from our laboratories identified a critical role for the fragment linked at C6 in determining whether triazolopyrimidines promote MT stabilization or, conversely, disrupt MT integrity in cells. To further elucidate the structure-activity relationship (SAR) and to identify potentially improved MT-stabilizing candidates for neurodegenerative disease, a comprehensive set of 68 triazolopyrimidine congeners bearing structural modifications at C6 and/or C7 was designed, synthesized, and evaluated. These studies expand upon prior understanding of triazolopyrimidine SAR and enabled the identification of novel analogues that, relative to the existing lead, exhibit improved physicochemical properties, MT-stabilizing activity, and pharmacokinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Killian Oukoloff
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Goodwell Nzou
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Carmine Varricchio
- Cardiff School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff CF103NB, U.K
| | - Bobby Lucero
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Thibault Alle
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Jane Kovalevich
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Ludovica Monti
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Anne-Sophie Cornec
- Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, 231 South 34th Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
| | - Yuemang Yao
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Michael J James
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - John Q Trojanowski
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Virginia M-Y Lee
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Amos B Smith
- Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, 231 South 34th Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
| | - Andrea Brancale
- Cardiff School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff CF103NB, U.K
| | - Kurt R Brunden
- Center for Neurodegenerative Disease Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 3600 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Carlo Ballatore
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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