Prognostication in Epilepsy with Integrated Analysis of Blood Parameters and Clinical Data

Background/Objectives: Determining the outcome of epilepsy is crucial for making proactive and timely treatment decisions and for counseling patients. Recent research efforts have focused on using various imaging techniques and EEG for prognostication; however, there is insufficient evidence regarding the role of blood parameters. Our study aimed to investigate the additional prognostic value of routine blood parameters in predicting epilepsy outcomes. Methods: We analyzed data from 1782 patients who underwent routine blood tests within 90 days of their first visit and had a minimum follow-up duration of three years. The etiological types were structural (35.1%), genetic (14.2%), immune (4.7%), infectious (2.9%), and unknown (42.6%). The outcome was defined as the presence of seizures in the last year. Results: Initially, a multivariate analysis was conducted based on clinical variables, MRI data, and EEG data. This analysis revealed that sex, age of onset, referred cases, epileptiform discharge, structural etiology, and the number of antiseizure medications were related to the outcome, with an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.705. Among the blood parameters, fibrinogen, bilirubin, uric acid, and aPTT were significant, with AUCs of 0.602, 0.597, 0.455, and 0.549, respectively. Including these blood parameters in the analysis slightly improved the AUC to 0.710. Conclusions: Some blood parameters were found to be related to the final outcome, potentially paving the way to understanding the mechanisms of epileptogenesis and drug resistance.

Characterization of anti-seizure medication reduction and discontinuation rates following epilepsy surgery

OBJECTIVE

Many patients pursue epilepsy surgery with the hope of reducing or stopping anti-seizure medications (ASMs), in addition to reducing their seizure frequency and severity. While ASM decrease is primarily driven by surgical outcomes and patient preferences, preoperative estimates of meaningful ASM reduction or discontinuation are uncertain, especially when accounting for the various forking paths possible following intracranial EEG (iEEG), including resection, neuromodulation, or even the absence of further surgery. Here, we characterize in detail the ASM reduction in a large cohort of patients who underwent iEEG, facilitating proactive, early counseling for a complicated cohort considering surgical treatment.

METHODS

We identified a multi-institutional cohort of patients who underwent iEEG between 2001 and 2022, with a minimum of two years follow-up. The total number of ASMs prescribed immediately prior to surgery, choice of investigation modality, and subsequent surgical treatment were extracted for each patient. Primary endpoints included decreases in ASM counts from preoperative baseline to various follow-up intervals.

RESULTS

A total of 284 patients were followed for a median of 6.0 (range 2,22) years after iEEG surgery. Patients undergoing resection saw an average reduction of ∼ 0.5 ASMs. Patients undergoing neuromodulation saw no decrease and trended towards requiring increased ASM usage during long-term follow-up. Only patients undergoing resection were likely to completely discontinue all ASMs, with an increasing probability over time approaching ∼ 10 %. Up to half of resection patients saw ASM decreases, which was largely stable during long-term follow-up, whereas only a quarter of neuromodulation patients saw a reduction, though their ASM reduction decreased over time.

CONCLUSIONS

With the increasing use of stereotactic EEG and non-curative neuromodulation procedures, realistic estimates of ASM reduction and discontinuation should be considered preoperatively. Almost half of patients undergoing resective surgery can expect to reduce their ASMs, though only a tenth can expect to discontinue ASMs completely. If reduction is not seen early, it likely does not occur later during long-term follow-up. Less than a third of patients undergoing neuromodulation can expect ASM reduction, and instead most may require increased usage during long-term follow-up.

Do we have to continue antiseizure medications post surgery in long-term epilepsy associated tumors (LEATs)?

OBJECTIVE

To identify the rate of successful antiseizure medication (ASM) withdrawal after resective surgery in patients with long-term epilepsy-associated tumors (LEATs).

METHODS

A retrospective analysis (from our prospectively archived data) on the post-operative ASM profile of 123 consecutive patients who completed a minimum of 2 years after resection of LEATs for ASM-resistant epilepsy. A comparison between recurred and non-recurred groups in terms of seizure recurrence was used to identify the potential predictors of seizure recurrence whose attributes were further analyzed using univariate and multiple logistic regression analysis. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were used to study the probability of ASM freedom following surgery.

RESULTS

We attempted ASM withdrawal in 102 (82.9 %) patients. Forty-eight (47.1 %) had seizure recurrence while reducing ASM, of which 22 (21.6 %) continued to have seizures even after ASM optimisation. On univariate analysis, presence of pre-operative secondary generalized seizure(s) was the only factor associated with seizure recurrence. At a mean follow-up of 6.1 years, 72 (58.5 %) patients were seizure-free and aura-free at terminal follow-up (53 patients were off any ASM). The cumulative probability of achieving complete ASM-free status was 29 % at fourth year, 42 % at sixth year, 55 % at eighth year, and 59 % at 10th year after surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

Following resective surgery for LEATs, ASM(s) could be successfully discontinued in half of the patients. About one-third of the patients may have recurrent seizures on follow-up. Presence of secondary generalized seizure(s) prior to surgery predicts seizure recurrence, whereas MRI defined completeness of resection will not. This information will help in rationalising decisions on ASM management post-resection.

The pharmacological treatment of epilepsy in adults

The pharmacological treatment of epilepsy entails several critical decisions that need to be based on an individual careful risk-benefit analysis. These include when to initiate treatment and with which antiseizure medication (ASM). With more than 25 ASMs on the market, physicians have opportunities to tailor the treatment to individual patients´ needs. ASM selection is primarily based on the patient's type of epilepsy and spectrum of ASM efficacy, but several other factors must be considered. These include age, sex, comorbidities, and concomitant medications to mention the most important. Individual susceptibility to adverse drug effects, ease of use, costs, and personal preferences should also be taken into account. Once an ASM has been selected, the next step is to decide on an individual target maintenance dose and a titration scheme to reach this dose. When the clinical circumstances permit, a slow titration is generally preferred since it is associated with improved tolerability. The maintenance dose is adjusted based on the clinical response aiming at the lowest effective dose. Therapeutic drug monitoring can be of value in efforts to establish the optimal dose. If the first monotherapy fails to control seizures without significant adverse effects, the next step will be to gradually switch to an alternative monotherapy, or sometimes to add another ASM. If an add-on is considered, combining ASMs with different modes of action is usually recommended. Misdiagnosis of epilepsy, non-adherence and suboptimal dosing are frequent causes of treatment failure and should be excluded before a patient is regarded as drug-resistant. Other treatment modalities, including epilepsy surgery, neuromodulation, and dietary therapies, should be considered for truly drug-resistant patients. After some years of seizure freedom, the question of ASM withdrawal often arises. Although successful in many, withdrawal is also associated with risks and the decision needs to be based on careful risk-benefit analysis.

Withdrawal of antiseizure medications after MRI-Guided laser interstitial thermal therapy in extra-temporal lobe epilepsy

PURPOSE

This study investigated the success rate of antiseizure medications (ASMs) withdrawal following MRI Guided Laser Interstitial Thermal Therapy (MRg-LITT) for extra-temporal lobe epilepsy (ETLE), and identified predictors of seizure recurrence.

METHODS

We retrospectively assessed 27 patients who underwent MRg-LITT for ETLE. Patients' demographics, disease characteristics, and post-surgical outcomes were evaluated for their potential to predict seizure recurrence associated with ASMs withdrawal.

RESULTS

The median period of observation post MRg-LITT was 3 years (range 18 - 96 months) and the median period to initial ASMs reduction was 0.5 years (range 1-36 months). ASMs reduction was attempted in 17 patients (63%), 5 (29%) of whom had seizure recurrence after initial reduction. Nearly all patient who relapsed regained seizure control after reinstitution of their ASMs regimen. Pre-operative seizure frequency (p = 0.002) and occurrence of acute post-operative seizures (p = 0.01) were associated with increased risk for seizure recurrence post ASMs reduction. At the end of the observation period, 11% of patients were seizure free without drugs, 52% were seizure free with drugs and 37% still experienced seizures despite ASMs. Compared with pre-operative status, the number of ASMs was reduced in 41% of patients, unchanged in 55% of them and increased in only 4% of them.

CONCLUSIONS

Successful MRg-LITT for ETLE allows for ASMs reduction in a significant portion of patients and complete ASMs withdrawal in a subset of them. Patients with higher pre-operative seizure frequency or occurrence of acute post operative seizures exhibit higher chances relapse post ASMs reduction.

Associations between cognition and employment outcomes after epilepsy surgery

OBJECTIVES

Previous studies have shown that younger age, higher education, and seizure freedom after epilepsy surgery are associated with employment. However, very few studies have investigated associations with cognition and employment status in epilepsy surgery patients.

METHODS

This retrospective study consists of 46 adult patients, who underwent resective epilepsy surgery in the Helsinki University Hospital between 2010 and 2018 and who had been assessed by a neuropsychologist prior to surgery and 6 months after surgery using a systematic test battery. In addition to neuropsychological evaluation, neurologists assessed the patients prior to surgery and followed up the patients up to 24 months after the surgery and evaluated work status of the patients. Logistic regression models were used to assess the effects of cognition on changes in employment status, while controlling for age and education.

RESULTS

Out of the 46 patients 38 (82.6%) were seizure free and 7 (15.2%) had their seizures reduced 2 years postsurgically. From prior to surgery to 2 years postsurgery, use of antiseizure medication was reduced in most of the patients, mean reduction of the dosage being 26.9%. Employment status improved in 10 (21.7%) patients, remained unchanged in 27 (58.7%) and worsened in 3 (6.5%). An additional 6 patients were already not working prior to surgery. Subsequent analyses are based on the subsample of 37 patients whose employment status improved or remained unchanged. Mistakes in executive function tasks (p = 0.048) and working memory performance (p = 0.020) differentiated between the group whose employment status remained similar and those who were able to improve their employment status. Epilepsy surgery outcome or changes in antiseizure medication (ASM) use were not associated with changes in employment status.

CONCLUSIONS

In the subsample of 37 patients, errors in executive function tasks and poorer working memory differentiated patients whose employment status did not change from those patients who could improve their employment status. Problems in executive function and working memory tasks might hinder performance in a complex work environment. When assessing the risks and opportunities in returning to work after surgery, difficulties in working memory and executive function performance should be taken into consideration as they may predispose the patient to challenges at work.

Antiseizure Medication Withdrawal Following Epilepsy Surgery

As pediatric epilepsy surgery cases increase in number and complexity, there remains a paucity of data regarding how, when, and in whom to discontinue antiseizure medications postoperatively. The "TimeToStop" data has been influential to clinical practice, revealing that while early discontinuation of antiseizure medications may reveal surgical failures earlier, it does not ultimately lead to a change in long-term seizure outcomes. The authors of other studies have also shown cognitive improvements in children for whom medications were discontinued postoperatively. Survey results over the last 2 decades have shown that clinicians have started to discontinue antiseizure medications earlier. This is an individualized decision with numerous factors to consider. Further research is needed to explore the optimal timing of medication discontinuation in this heterogeneous population of children undergoing epilepsy surgery.

Ambulatory EEG Usefulness in Epilepsy Management

SUMMARY

Long-term video-EEG monitoring has been the gold standard for diagnosis of epileptic and nonepileptic events. Medication changes, safety, and a lack of recording EEG in one's habitual environment may interfere with diagnostic representation and subsequently affect management. Some spells defy standard EEG because of ultradian and circadian times of occurrence, manifest nocturnal expression of epileptiform activity, and require classification for clarifying diagnostic input to identify optimal treatment. Some patients may be unaware of seizures, have frequent events, or subclinical seizures that require quantification before optimal management. The influence on antiseizure drug management and clinical drug research can be enlightened by long-term outpatient ambulatory EEG monitoring. With recent governmental shifts to focus on mobile health, ambulatory EEG monitoring has grown beyond diagnostic capabilities to target the dynamic effects of medical and nonmedical treatment for patients with epilepsy in their natural environment. Furthermore, newer applications in ambulatory monitoring include additional physiologic parameters (e.g., sleep, detection of myogenic signals, etc.) and extend treatment relevance to patients beyond seizure reduction alone addressing comorbid conditions. It is with this focus in mind that we direct our discussion on the present and future aspects of using ambulatory EEG monitoring in the treatment of patients with epilepsy.

Surgery for epilepsy

BACKGROUND

This is an updated version of the original Cochrane review, published in 2015.Focal epilepsies are caused by a malfunction of nerve cells localised in one part of one cerebral hemisphere. In studies, estimates of the number of individuals with focal epilepsy who do not become seizure-free despite optimal drug therapy vary between at least 20% and up to 70%. If the epileptogenic zone can be located, surgical resection offers the chance of a cure with a corresponding increase in quality of life.

OBJECTIVES

The primary objective is to assess the overall outcome of epilepsy surgery according to evidence from randomised controlled trials.Secondary objectives are to assess the overall outcome of epilepsy surgery according to non-randomised evidence, and to identify the factors that correlate with remission of seizures postoperatively.

SEARCH METHODS

For the latest update, we searched the following databases on 11 March 2019: Cochrane Register of Studies (CRS Web), which includes the Cochrane Epilepsy Group Specialized Register and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE (Ovid, 1946 to March 08, 2019), ClinicalTrials.gov, and the World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP).

SELECTION CRITERIA

Eligible studies were randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that included at least 30 participants in a well-defined population (age, sex, seizure type/frequency, duration of epilepsy, aetiology, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) diagnosis, surgical findings), with an MRI performed in at least 90% of cases and an expected duration of follow-up of at least one year, and reporting an outcome related to postoperative seizure control. Cohort studies or case series were included in the previous version of this review.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Three groups of two review authors independently screened all references for eligibility, assessed study quality and risk of bias, and extracted data. Outcomes were proportions of participants achieving a good outcome according to the presence or absence of each prognostic factor of interest. We intended to combine data with risk ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs).

MAIN RESULTS

We identified 182 studies with a total of 16,855 included participants investigating outcomes of surgery for epilepsy. Nine studies were RCTs (including two that randomised participants to surgery or medical treatment (99 participants included in the two trials received medical treatment)). Risk of bias in these RCTs was unclear or high. Most of the remaining 173 non-randomised studies followed a retrospective design. We assessed study quality using the Effective Public Health Practice Project (EPHPP) tool and determined that most studies provided moderate or weak evidence. For 29 studies reporting multivariate analyses, we used the Quality in Prognostic Studies (QUIPS) tool and determined that very few studies were at low risk of bias across domains.In terms of freedom from seizures, two RCTs found surgery (n = 97) to be superior to medical treatment (n = 99); four found no statistically significant differences between anterior temporal lobectomy (ATL) with or without corpus callosotomy (n = 60), between subtemporal or transsylvian approach to selective amygdalohippocampectomy (SAH) (n = 47); between ATL, SAH and parahippocampectomy (n = 43) or between 2.5 cm and 3.5 cm ATL resection (n = 207). One RCT found total hippocampectomy to be superior to partial hippocampectomy (n = 70) and one found ATL to be superior to stereotactic radiosurgery (n = 58); and another provided data to show that for Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, no significant differences in seizure outcomes were evident between those treated with resection of the epileptogenic zone and those treated with resection of the epileptogenic zone plus corpus callosotomy (n = 43). We judged evidence from the nine RCTs to be of moderate to very low quality due to lack of information reported about the randomised trial design and the restricted study populations.Of the 16,756 participants included in this review who underwent a surgical procedure, 10,696 (64%) achieved a good outcome from surgery; this ranged across studies from 13.5% to 92.5%. Overall, we found the quality of data in relation to recording of adverse events to be very poor.In total, 120 studies examined between one and eight prognostic factors in univariate analysis. We found the following prognostic factors to be associated with a better post-surgical seizure outcome: abnormal pre-operative MRI, no use of intracranial monitoring, complete surgical resection, presence of mesial temporal sclerosis, concordance of pre-operative MRI and electroencephalography, history of febrile seizures, absence of focal cortical dysplasia/malformation of cortical development, presence of tumour, right-sided resection, and presence of unilateral interictal spikes. We found no evidence that history of head injury, presence of encephalomalacia, presence of vascular malformation, and presence of postoperative discharges were prognostic factors of outcome.Twenty-nine studies reported multi-variable models of prognostic factors, and showed that the direction of association of factors with outcomes was generally the same as that found in univariate analyses.We observed variability in many of our analyses, likely due to small study sizes with unbalanced group sizes and variation in the definition of seizure outcome, the definition of prognostic factors, and the influence of the site of surgery AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Study design issues and limited information presented in the included studies mean that our results provide limited evidence to aid patient selection for surgery and prediction of likely surgical outcomes. Future research should be of high quality, follow a prospective design, be appropriately powered, and focus on specific issues related to diagnostic tools, the site-specific surgical approach, and other issues such as extent of resection. Researchers should investigate prognostic factors related to the outcome of surgery via multi-variable statistical regression modelling, where variables are selected for modelling according to clinical relevance, and all numerical results of the prognostic models are fully reported. Journal editors should not accept papers for which study authors did not record adverse events from a medical intervention. Researchers have achieved improvements in cancer care over the past three to four decades by answering well-defined questions through the conduct of focused RCTs in a step-wise fashion. The same approach to surgery for epilepsy is required.

The Concept of Drug-Resistant Epileptogenic Zone

Resective surgery is the most effective way to treat drug-resistant epilepsy. Despite extensive pre-surgical evaluation, only 30–70% patients would become seizure-free after surgery. New approaches and strategies are needed to improve the outcome of epilepsy surgery. It is commonly observed in clinical practice that antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) could maintain seizure freedom in a large proportion of patients after surgery, who were uncontrolled before the operation. In some patients cessation of AEDs leads to seizure recurrence which, in most cases, can be controlled by resuming AEDs. These observations suggest that the surgery has converted the epilepsy from drug-resistant to drug-responsive, implying that the operation has removed the brain tissue accounting for pharmacoresistance, rather than the pathological substrate of epilepsy (at least not completely). Based on these observations, it is hypothesized that there is a drug-resistant epileptogenic zone (DREZ) which overlaps with the epileptogenic zone (EZ), and has both epileptogenic and drug-resistant properties. DREZ is necessary and sufficient to cause drug-resistant epilepsy, and its remove would render the epilepsy drug-responsive. Testing the hypothesis requires the development of new methods to define the DREZ, which may be used to guide surgical planning when the epileptogenic zone cannot be completely excised. This concept can also help understand the mechanisms of drug-resistant epilepsy, leading to new therapeutic strategies.

Antiepileptic Drug Withdrawal after Surgery in Children with Focal Cortical Dysplasia: Seizure Recurrence and Its Predictors

Background and Purpose

This study investigated the seizure recurrence rate and potential predictors of seizure recurrence following antiepileptic drug (AED) withdrawal after resective epilepsy surgery in children with focal cortical dysplasia (FCD).

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed the records of 70 children and adolescents with FCD types I, II, and IIIa who underwent resective epilepsy surgery between 2004 and 2015 and were followed for at least 2 years after surgery.

Results

We attempted AED withdrawal in 40 patients. The median time of starting the AED reduction was 10.8 months after surgery. Of these 40 patients, 14 patients (35%) experienced seizure recurrence during AED reduction or after AED withdrawal. Half of the 14 patients who experienced recurrence regained seizure freedom after AED reintroduction and optimization. Compared with their preoperative status, the AED dose or number was decreased in 57.1% of patients, and remained unchanged in 14.3% after surgery. A multivariate analysis found that incomplete resection (p=0.004) and epileptic discharges on the postoperative EEG (p=0.025) were important predictors of seizure recurrence after AED withdrawal. Over the mean follow-up duration of 4.5 years after surgery, 34 patients (48.6% of the entire cohort) were seizure-free with and without AEDs.

Conclusions

Children with incomplete resection and epileptic discharges on postoperative EEG are at a high risk of seizure recurrence after drug withdrawal. Complete resection of FCD may lead to a favorable surgical outcome and successful AED withdrawal after surgery.

Postoperative seizure outcome and timing interval to start antiepileptic drug withdrawal: A retrospective observational study of non-neoplastic drug resistant epilepsy

This study aimed to investigate the impact of timing interval to start AED withdraw (TIW) after surgery on the seizure outcome in non-neoplastic drug resistant epilepsy (DRE). TIW were divided into three groups (respectively,<1 year, 1-<2 years, and ≥2 years). The seizure outcome at the different time points after starting AED withdrawal were compared among three groups. Other factors that related to seizure recurrence and TIW were included into the multiple analysis to investigate the predictors of seizure-free. Altogether, 205 patients were involved in the study. 102 individuals (50%) had seizure recurrence and 127 (62%) had seizure-free at the final follow up. 115 of them have attempted AED reduction and had not seizure recurrence before AED reduction. The rate of seizure-free had no significant difference among people with different TIW. Multiple analysis indicated that temporal surgery is a favorable predictor of seizure-free at the first year after starting AED withdrawal, and preoperative secondary generalized seizures is an unfavorable predictor of seizure-free at the final follow up. In patients with non-neoplastic DRE, TIW is not the mainly influence factor on seizure outcome, however, preoperative secondary generalized seizures and extra-temporal surgery are negatively associated with seizure-free.

Outcome after seizure recurrence on antiepileptic drug withdrawal following temporal lobectomy

OBJECTIVE

To study the long-term outcome following seizure recurrence on antiepileptic drug (AED) withdrawal after anterior temporal lobectomy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy.

METHODS

We retrospectively studied the AED profile of patients who had a minimum of 5 years of postoperative follow-up after anterior temporal lobectomy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Only those patients with hippocampal sclerosis or normal MRI were included. AED withdrawal was initiated at 3 months in patients on ≥2 drugs and at 1 year for patients on a single drug.

RESULTS

Three hundred eighty-four patients with median postoperative follow-up of 12 years (range, 7-17 years) were included. Of them, 316 patients (82.3%) were seizure-free during the terminal 1 year. AED withdrawal was attempted in 326 patients (84.9%). At last follow-up, AEDs were discontinued in 207 patients (53.9%). Seizure recurrence occurred in 92 patients (28.2%) on attempted withdrawal. After a median postrecurrence follow-up of 7 years, 79 (86%) of them were seizure-free during the terminal 2 years. AEDs could be stopped in 17 patients (18.5%) and doses were reduced in another 57 patients (62%). Patients with febrile seizures, normal postoperative EEG at 1 year, and duration of epilepsy of <20 years (FND20 score) had 17% risk of seizure recurrence on attempted AED withdrawal. We also formulated a score to predict the chances of AED freedom for the whole cohort.

CONCLUSION

Patients with seizure recurrence on AED withdrawal have good outcome with 86% becoming seizure-free and 18% becoming drug-free after initial recurrence. A FND20 score helps in predicting recurrence on AED withdrawal.

Does early postoperative drug regimen impact seizure control in patients undergoing temporal lobe resections?

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the impact of postoperative antiepileptic drug (AED) load on seizure control in patients who underwent surgical treatment for pharmacoresistant mesiotemporal lobe epilepsy during the first two postoperative years.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

532 consecutive patients (48.7% males and 51.7% females) who underwent surgical treatment for mesiotemporal lobe epilepsy were retrospectively evaluated regarding effects of AED load on seizures control during the first 2 years following epilepsy surgery. We analyzed whether postoperative increases in postoperative AED load are associated with better seizure control in patients initially not seizure free, and if postoperative decreases in postoperative AED load would increase the risk for seizure persistence or recurrence. For statistical analyses, Fisher's exact and Wilcoxon test were applied.

RESULTS

68.9, 64.0 and 59.1% of patients were completely seizure free (Engel Ia) at 3, 12 and 24 months after surgery, respectively. Patients in whom daily drug doses were increased did not have a higher rate of seizure freedom at any of the three follow-up periods. Of 16 patients achieving secondary seizure control at 12 months after surgery, only one did so with an increase in drug load in contrast to 15 patients who experienced a running down of seizures independent of drug load increases. Decreases in drug load did not significantly increase the risk for seizure recurrence. Of postoperatively seizure free patients at 3 months after surgery in whom AED were consequently reduced, 85% remained completely seizure free at 1 year and 76% at 1 year after surgery, respectively, as opposed to 86% each when AED was not reduced (differences n.s.). Mean daily drug load was significantly lower in seizure free patients at 12 and 24 months compared to patients with ongoing seizures.

CONCLUSION

In this large patient cohort stratified to the epilepsy syndrome neither did a postoperative reduction in drug load significantly increase the risk for seizure relapse nor did increases in drug dosages lead to improved seizure control. Mean drug load was on average lower in seizure free- than non-seizure free patients at 12 and 24 months of follow-up. Secondary seizure control after initial postoperative seizures in > 90% of cases occurred as a running down, independent of an AED increase. Thus, the effect of the surgical intervention rather than the postoperative drug regimen was the key determinant for seizure control. This finding supports a curative role of temporal lobe surgery rather than an effect rendering the majority of patients' pharmacoresponsive with a critical role of the antiepileptic drug regime for seizure control.

Drug-Resistant Epilepsy and Surgery

BACKGROUND

Epilepsy is a chronic brain disease that is caused by various factors and characterized by recurrent, episodic and temporary central nervous system dysfunction which results due to excessive discharge of brain neurons. In the past decades, despite the continuous development of antiepileptic drugs, there are still many patients with epilepsy progressing to drugresistant epilepsy. Currently, surgical treatment is one of important way to cure drug-resistant epilepsy.

METHODS

Data were collected from Web of Science, Medline, Pubmed, through searching of these keywords: "surgery" and "drug-resistant epilepsy".

RESULTS

An increasing number of studies have shown that surgery plays an important role in the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy. Moreover, the comprehensive treatment mainly based on surgery can achieve the remission and even cure of drug-resistant epilepsy.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we discuss the pathogenesis of drug-resistant epilepsy and the comprehensive treatment mainly based on surgery; this review may provide a reference for the clinical treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy.

Early withdrawal of non-anesthetic antiepileptic drugs after successful termination of nonconvulsive seizures and nonconvulsive status epilepticus

PURPOSE

Multiple antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are often necessary to treat nonconvulsive seizures (NCS) and nonconvulsive status epilepticus (NCSE). AED polypharmacy places patients at risk for adverse side effects and drug-drug interactions. Identifying the likelihood of seizure relapse when weaning non-anesthetic AEDs may provide guidance in the critical care unit.

METHOD

Ninety-nine adult patients with successful treatment of electrographic-proven NCS or NCSE on continuous critical care EEG (CCEEG) monitoring were identified retrospectively. Patients were determined to undergo an AED wean if the number of non-anesthetic AEDs was reduced at the time of discharge compared to the number of non-anesthetic AEDs at primary seizure cessation. Primary outcome was recurrent seizures either clinically or by CCEEG during hospitalization. Secondary outcome measures included hospital length of stay and discharge disposition.

RESULTS

The rate of recurrent seizures in the wean group was not statistically different when compared to the group that did not undergo an AED wean (17% vs. 13%, respectively; p = 0.77). The wean group had a median value of 4 (IQR: 3-4) non-anesthetic AEDs at the time of primary seizure cessation compared with 3 (IQR: 2-3) in the non-wean group (p < 0.0001). However, both groups had similar values of AEDs at discharge (median of 2 (IQR: 2-3) vs. 3 (IQR: 2-3) for wean and non-wean groups respectively; p = 0.40). Discharge disposition (favorable, acceptable, or unfavorable) was similar between groups (p = 0.32).

CONCLUSIONS

Early weaning of non-anesthetic AEDs does not increase the risk of recurrent seizures in patients treated for NCS or NCSE during their hospitalization.

Cost-Utility of Video-Electroencephalography Monitoring Followed by Surgery in Adults with Drug-Resistant Focal Epilepsy in Thailand

OBJECTIVES

This study assessed whether video-electroencephalography (VEEG) monitoring followed by surgery was cost-effective in adult patients with drug-resistant focal epilepsy under Thai health care context, as compared with continued medical treatment without VEEG.

METHODS

The total cost (in Thai Baht, THB) and effectiveness (in quality-adjusted life years, QALYs) were estimated over a lifetime horizon, using a decision tree and a Markov model. Data on short-term surgical outcomes, direct health care costs, and utilities were collected from Thai patients in a specialized hospital. Long-term outcomes and relative effectiveness of the surgery over medical treatment were derived, using systematic reviews of published literature.

RESULTS

Seizure-free rates at years 1 and 2 after surgery were 79.4% and 77.8%, respectively. Costs of VEEG and surgery plus 1-year follow-up care were 216,782 THB, of which the VEEG and other necessary investigations were the main cost drivers (42.8%). On the basis of societal perspective, the total cost over a 40-year horizon accrued to 1,168,679 THB for the VEEG option, 64,939 THB higher than that for no VEEG. The VEEG option contributed to an additional 1.50 QALYs over no VEEG, resulting in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of 43,251 THB (USD 1236) per 1 QALY gained. Changes in key parameters had a minimal impact on the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio. Accounting for uncertainty, there was an 84% probability that the VEEG option was cost-effective on the basis of Thailand's cost-effective threshold of 160,000 THB/QALY.

CONCLUSIONS

For patients with drug-resistant epilepsy, VEEG monitoring followed by epilepsy surgery was cost-effective in Thailand. Therefore it should be recommended for health insurance coverage.

Expression levels of microRNA-199 and hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha in brain tissue of patients with intractable epilepsy

OBJECTIVES

During the last decade, experimental evidence has demonstrated an important role of hypoxia, which leads to neuronal cell death and angiogenesis, in the mechanisms of seizure precipitation and recurrence. MicroRNA-199 targets hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1α), which has recently been implicated in the pathophysiology of the hypoxic state and brain injury. However, little is known about the roles of MicroRNA-199 and HIF-1α in the human epileptogenic process.

DESIGN AND METHODS

In this study, we investigated the expression of miR-199a-5p, miR-199b-5p and HIF-1α using real-time PCR, immunohistochemistry and western blots in the temporal neocortex of twenty four patients with intractable epilepsy and twelve control subjects.

RESULTS

Compared with the control group, the expression of miR-199a-5p and miR-199b-5p was significantly lower in epileptic brain tissues (p < 0.05). The levels of HIF-1α mRNA and protein were highly up-regulated in epileptic brain tissues compared with those of control subjects (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that the abnormal expression of miR-199 and HIF-1α in epileptic brain tissue may be involved in the pathophysiology of human epilepsy and that the expression of HIF-1α may be regulated by miR-199. These findings may provide new insights into the treatment of epilepsy.

Surgery for epilepsy

BACKGROUND

Focal epilepsies are caused by a malfunction of nerve cells localised in one part of one cerebral hemisphere. In studies, estimates of the number of individuals with focal epilepsy who do not become seizure-free despite optimal drug therapy vary according to the age of the participants and which focal epilepsies are included, but have been reported as at least 20% and in some studies up to 70%. If the epileptogenic zone can be located surgical resection offers the chance of a cure with a corresponding increase in quality of life.

OBJECTIVES

The primary objective is to assess the overall outcome of epilepsy surgery according to evidence from randomised controlled trials.The secondary objectives are to assess the overall outcome of epilepsy surgery according to non-randomised evidence and to identify the factors that correlate to remission of seizures postoperatively.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Epilepsy Group Specialised Register (June 2013), the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL 2013, Issue 6), MEDLINE (Ovid) (2001 to 4 July 2013), ClinicalTrials.gov and the World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) for relevant trials up to 4 July 2013.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Eligible studies were randomised controlled trials (RCTs), cohort studies or case series, with either a prospective and/or retrospective design, including at least 30 participants, a well-defined population (age, sex, seizure type/frequency, duration of epilepsy, aetiology, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) diagnosis, surgical findings), an MRI performed in at least 90% of cases and an expected duration of follow-up of at least one year, and reporting an outcome relating to postoperative seizure control.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Three groups of two review authors independently screened all references for eligibility, assessed study quality and risk of bias, and extracted data. Outcomes were proportion of participants achieving a good outcome according to the presence or absence of each prognostic factor of interest. We intended to combine data with risk ratios (RR) and 95% confidence intervals.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified 177 studies (16,253 participants) investigating the outcome of surgery for epilepsy. Four studies were RCTs (including one that randomised participants to surgery or medical treatment). The risk of bias in the RCTs was unclear or high, limiting our confidence in the evidence that addressed the primary review objective. Most of the remaining 173 non-randomised studies had a retrospective design; they were of variable size, were conducted in a range of countries, recruited a wide demographic range of participants, used a wide range of surgical techniques and used different scales used to measure outcomes. We performed quality assessment using the Effective Public Health Practice Project (EPHPP) tool and determined that most studies provided moderate or weak evidence. For 29 studies reporting multivariate analyses we used the Quality in Prognostic Studies (QUIPS) tool and determined that very few studies were at low risk of bias across the domains.In terms of freedom from seizures, one RCT found surgery to be superior to medical treatment, two RCTs found no statistically significant difference between anterior temporal lobectomy (ATL) with or without corpus callosotomy or between 2.5 cm or 3.5 cm ATL resection, and one RCT found total hippocampectomy to be superior to partial hippocampectomy. We judged the evidence from the four RCTs to be of moderate to very low quality due to the lack of information reported about the randomised trial design and the restricted study populations.Of the 16,253 participants included in this review, 10,518 (65%) achieved a good outcome from surgery; this ranged across studies from 13.5% to 92.5%. Overall, we found the quality of data in relation to the recording of adverse events to be very poor.In total, 118 studies examined between one and eight prognostic factors in univariate analysis. We found the following prognostic factors to be associated with a better post-surgical seizure outcome: an abnormal pre-operative MRI, no use of intracranial monitoring, complete surgical resection, presence of mesial temporal sclerosis, concordance of pre-operative MRI and electroencephalography (EEG), history of febrile seizures, absence of focal cortical dysplasia/malformation of cortical development, presence of tumour, right-sided resection and presence of unilateral interictal spikes. We found no evidence that history of head injury, presence of encephalomalacia, presence of vascular malformation or presence of postoperative discharges were prognostic factors of outcome. We observed variability between studies for many of our analyses, likely due to the small study sizes with unbalanced group sizes, variation in the definition of seizure outcome, definition of the prognostic factor and the influence of the site of surgery, all of which we observed to be related to postoperative seizure outcome. Twenty-nine studies reported multivariable models of prognostic factors and the direction of association of factors with outcome was generally the same as found in the univariate analyses. However, due to the different multivariable analysis approaches and selective reporting of results, meaningful comparison of multivariate analysis with univariate meta-analysis is difficult.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The study design issues and limited information presented in the included studies mean that our results provide limited evidence to aid patient selection for surgery and prediction of likely surgical outcome. Future research should be of high quality, have a prospective design, be appropriately powered and focus on specific issues related to diagnostic tools, the site-specific surgical approach and other issues such as the extent of resection. Prognostic factors related to the outcome of surgery should be investigated via multivariable statistical regression modelling, where variables are selected for modelling according to clinical relevance and all numerical results of the prognostic models are fully reported. Protocols should include pre- and postoperative measures of speech and language function, cognition and social functioning along with a mental state assessment. Journal editors should not accept papers where adverse events from a medical intervention are not recorded. Improvements in the development of cancer care over the past three to four decades have been achieved by answering well-defined questions through the conduct of focused RCTs in a step-wise fashion. The same approach to surgery for epilepsy is required.

Epilepsy: new advances

Epilepsy affects 65 million people worldwide and entails a major burden in seizure-related disability, mortality, comorbidities, stigma, and costs. In the past decade, important advances have been made in the understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms of the disease and factors affecting its prognosis. These advances have translated into new conceptual and operational definitions of epilepsy in addition to revised criteria and terminology for its diagnosis and classification. Although the number of available antiepileptic drugs has increased substantially during the past 20 years, about a third of patients remain resistant to medical treatment. Despite improved effectiveness of surgical procedures, with more than half of operated patients achieving long-term freedom from seizures, epilepsy surgery is still done in a small subset of drug-resistant patients. The lives of most people with epilepsy continue to be adversely affected by gaps in knowledge, diagnosis, treatment, advocacy, education, legislation, and research. Concerted actions to address these challenges are urgently needed.

Prognostic Tests and Antiepileptic Drug Withdrawal After Epilepsy Surgery

Approximately one in three patients with a successful epilepsy surgery will have seizure recurrence following antiepileptic drugs (AED) withdrawal. The value of postoperative testing for predicting seizure relapse after AED tapering is not clear. The purpose of this study was to review the literature for evidence on the use of postoperative investigations before AED discontinuation after successful epilepsy surgery. We were unable to identify studies on the prognostic value of postoperative magnetic resonance imaging and AED blood levels. The literature review yielded seven studies on the predictive value of electroencephalography. Four studies found no association between interictal discharges (IED) and seizure relapse. These studies suffered from various limitations due to their retrospective design and generally small cohorts. Two of the three studies reporting a positive association were prospective and provided strong evidence of an increased risk of seizure recurrence with presence of postoperative IED in successfully operated patients undergoing AED withdrawal.

Reducing versus stopping antiepileptic medications after temporal lobe surgery

Objective

To study the safety of antiepileptic drug (AED) withdrawal after temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) surgery.

Methods

We reviewed patients who underwent TLE surgery from 1995 to 2011, collecting data on doses, dates of AED initiation, reduction, and discontinuation. Predictors of seizure outcome were defined using Cox-proportional hazard modeling and adjusted for, while comparing longitudinal seizure-freedom in patients for whom AEDs were unchanged after resection as opposed to reduced or stopped.

Results

A total of 609 patients (86% adults) were analyzed. Follow-up ranged from 0.5 to 16.7 years. Most (64%) had hippocampal sclerosis. Overall, 229 patients had remained on their same baseline AEDs, while 380 patients stopped (127 cases) or reduced (253 cases) their AEDs. Mean timing of the earliest AED change was shorter in patients with recurrent seizures (1.04 years) compared to those seizure-free at last follow-up (1.44 years; P-value 0.03). Whether AEDs were withdrawn 12 or 24 months after surgery, there was a 10–25% higher risk of breakthrough seizures within the subsequent 2 years. However, 70% of patients with seizure recurrence after AED discontinuation reachieved remission, as opposed to 50% of those whose seizures recurred while reducing AEDs (P = 0.0001). Long-term remission rates were similar in both AED discontinuation and “unchanged” groups (82% remission for AEDs withdrawn after 1 year and 90% for AEDs withdrawn after 2 years), while only 65% of patients whose recurrences started during AED reduction achieved a 2-year remission by last follow-up.

Interpretation

AED withdrawal increases the short-term risk of breakthrough seizures after TLE surgery, and may alter the long-term disease course in some patients.

Comparing the effects of cortical resection and vagus nerve stimulation in patients with nonlesional extratemporal epilepsy

The main purpose of this retrospective study was to compare the effects of resective surgery (RESgr-26 patients) and vagus nerve stimulation (VNSgr-35 patients) on seizure frequency (2 and 5years after surgery) in patients with nonlesional extratemporal epilepsy (NLexTLE). We analyzed hospital admission costs directly associated with epilepsy (HACE) in both groups at the same follow-up. The decrease in seizure frequency from the preoperative levels, in both VNSgr and RESgr, was statistically significant (p<0.001). The seizure frequency reduction did not differ significantly between the follow-up visits for either group (p=0.221 at 2years and 0.218 at 5years). A significantly higher number of Engel I and Engel I+II patients were found in RESgr than in VNSgr at both follow-up visits (p=0.04 and 0.007, respectively). Using McHugh classification, we did not find statistically significant differences between both groups at both follow-up visits. Hospital admission costs directly associated with epilepsy/patient/year in both RESgr and VNSgr dropped significantly at 2- and 5-year follow-up visit and this reduction was not statistically different between RESgr and VNSgr (p=0.232). Both VNS and resective surgery cause comparably significant seizure reduction in NLexTLE. Resective surgery leads to a greater number of patients with excellent postoperative outcome (Engel I+II). The HACE reduction is statistically comparable between both groups.

Altered expression of vesicular monoamine transporter 2 in epileptic patients and experimental rats

In the central nervous system (CNS), vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) transports cytoplasmic monoamines such as dopamine into synaptic vesicles for storage and subsequent exocytotic release. Recent studies have provided direct evidence for VMAT2-regulated monoamine neurotransmitter involvement in the neurophysiological activities of neurological disease. This study investigated the expression pattern of VMAT2 in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) and in a rat model of epilepsy. We assessed the expression of VMAT2 in the temporal neocortex in 24 TLE patients using western blotting and quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) analyses. These results showed that VMAT2 expression dynamically decreased in TLE patients when compared with the control subjects (n = 12). And that VMAT2 protein transiently increased in acute stages (1 day and 3 days) after epileptic seizures in pilocarpine-treated rats; however, it clearly decreased after spontaneous recurrent seizures (7 days, 21 days, and 60 days after seizures). In addition, double immunofluorescence and immunohistochemical labeling studies performed in patient and experimental animal tissue revealed that VMAT2 protein was mainly expressed in the cytoplasm and in the axons of neurons but not glial cells in the hippocampus and temporal lobe cortex. These data suggested that the abnormal expression of VMAT2 mRNA and protein in epileptic brain tissue may contribute to vulnerability toward epilepsy-related psychiatric disorders and cognitive impairment.

Survey of current practices among US epileptologists of antiepileptic drug withdrawal after epilepsy surgery

In order to identify the current practices of antiepileptic drug (AED) withdrawal after epilepsy surgery, a survey was administered to 204 adult and pediatric epileptologists. The responses from 58 epileptologists revealed wide variations regarding the time course and extent of AED withdrawal after successful epilepsy surgery. For most of the epileptologists, the likelihood of the surgery being successful is an important factor in determining whether or not AEDs are tapered. Most of the respondents started to taper AEDs more rapidly than suggested by previous reports. The majority of the epileptologists were able to stop all AEDs completely in a substantial number of patients. The most important factors considered when deciding to taper AEDs were the presence of ongoing auras and the occurrence of postoperative seizures prior to seizure remission. In the absence of data from well-designed prospective trials, such survey results can inform practice and, hopefully, aid in the design of future trials.

Stopping antiepileptic drugs: when and why?

After a patient has initiated an antiepileptic drug (AED) and achieved a sustained period of seizure freedom, the bias towards continuing therapy indefinitely can be substantial. Studies show that the rate of seizure recurrence after AED withdrawal is about two to three times the rate in patients who continue AEDs, but there are many benefits to AED withdrawal that should be evaluated on an individualized basis. AED discontinuation may be considered in patients whose seizures have been completely controlled for a prolonged period, typically 1 to 2 years for children and 2 to 5 years for adults. For children, symptomatic epilepsy, adolescent onset, and a longer time to achieve seizure control are associated with a worse prognosis. In adults, factors such as a longer duration of epilepsy, an abnormal neurologic examination, an abnormal EEG, and certain epilepsy syndromes are known to increase the risk of recurrence. Even in patients with a favorable prognosis, however, the risk of relapse can be as high as 20% to 25%. Before withdrawing AEDs, patients should be counseled about their individual risk for relapse and the potential implications of a recurrent seizure, particularly for safety and driving.