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Heim P, Spedalotto G, Lovisari M, Gericke R, O'Brien J, Farquhar ER, McDonald AR. Synthesis and Characterization of a Masked Terminal Nickel-Oxide Complex. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202203840. [PMID: 36696360 PMCID: PMC10101870 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202203840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In exploring terminal nickel-oxo complexes, postulated to be the active oxidant in natural and non-natural oxidation reactions, we report the synthesis of the pseudo-trigonal bipyramidal NiII complexes (K)[NiII (LPh )(DMF)] (1[DMF]) and (NMe4 )2 [NiII (LPh )(OAc)] (1[OAc]) (LPh =2,2',2''-nitrilo-tris-(N-phenylacetamide); DMF=N,N-dimethylformamide; - OAc=acetate). Both complexes were characterized using NMR, FTIR, ESI-MS, and X-ray crystallography, showing the LPh ligand to bind in a tetradentate fashion, together with an ancillary donor. The reaction of 1[OAc] with peroxyphenyl acetic acid (PPAA) resulted in the formation of [(LPh )NiIII -O-H⋅⋅⋅OAc]2- , 2, that displays many of the characteristics of a terminal Ni=O species. 2 was characterized by UV-Vis, EPR, and XAS spectroscopies and ESI-MS. 2 decayed to yield a NiII -phenolate complex 3 (through aromatic electrophilic substitution) that was characterized by NMR, FTIR, ESI-MS, and X-ray crystallography. 2 was capable of hydroxylation of hydrocarbons and epoxidation of olefins, as well as oxygen atom transfer oxidation of phosphines at exceptional rates. While the oxo-wall remains standing, this complex represents an excellent example of a masked metal-oxide that displays all of the properties expected of the ever elusive terminal M=O beyond the oxo-wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Heim
- School of Chemistry and CRANN/AMBER Nanoscience Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Giuseppe Spedalotto
- School of Chemistry and CRANN/AMBER Nanoscience Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Marta Lovisari
- School of Chemistry and CRANN/AMBER Nanoscience Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Robert Gericke
- School of Chemistry and CRANN/AMBER Nanoscience Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Current address: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf e.V., Institute of Resource Ecology, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany
| | - John O'Brien
- School of Chemistry and CRANN/AMBER Nanoscience Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Erik R Farquhar
- Center for Synchrotron Biosciences, National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven, National Laboratory Case Western Reserve University, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Aidan R McDonald
- School of Chemistry and CRANN/AMBER Nanoscience Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
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2
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Wojdyla Z, Borowski T. Properties of the Reactants and Their Interactions within and with the Enzyme Binding Cavity Determine Reaction Selectivities. The Case of Fe(II)/2-Oxoglutarate Dependent Enzymes. Chemistry 2022; 28:e202104106. [PMID: 34986268 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202104106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Fe(II)/2-oxoglutarate dependent dioxygenases (ODDs) share a double stranded beta helix (DSBH) fold and utilise a common reactive intermediate, ferryl species, to catalyse oxidative transformations of substrates. Despite the structural similarities, ODDs accept a variety of substrates and facilitate a wide range of reactions, that is hydroxylations, desaturations, (oxa)cyclisations and ring rearrangements. In this review we present and discuss the factors contributing to the observed (regio)selectivities of ODDs. They span from inherent properties of the reactants, that is, substrate molecule and iron cofactor, to the interactions between the substrate and the enzyme's binding cavity; the latter can counterbalance the effect of the former. Based on results of both experimental and computational studies dedicated to ODDs, we also line out the properties of the reactants which promote reaction outcomes other than the "default" hydroxylation. It turns out that the reaction selectivity depends on a delicate balance of interactions between the components of the investigated system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuzanna Wojdyla
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Niezapominajek 8, 30239 Krakow, Poland
| | - Tomasz Borowski
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Niezapominajek 8, 30239 Krakow, Poland
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3
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Sheng Y, Abelson CS, Prakash J, Draksharapu A, Young VG, Que L. Unmasking Steps in Intramolecular Aromatic Hydroxylation by a Synthetic Nonheme Oxoiron(IV) Complex. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202108309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Sheng
- Department of Chemistry University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55455 USA
| | - Chase S. Abelson
- Department of Chemistry University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55455 USA
| | - Jai Prakash
- Department of Chemistry University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55455 USA
| | | | - Victor G. Young
- Department of Chemistry University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55455 USA
| | - Lawrence Que
- Department of Chemistry University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55455 USA
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4
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Sheng Y, Abelson CS, Prakash J, Draksharapu A, Young VG, Que L. Unmasking Steps in Intramolecular Aromatic Hydroxylation by a Synthetic Nonheme Oxoiron(IV) Complex. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:20991-20998. [PMID: 34292639 PMCID: PMC8429247 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202108309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In this study, a methyl group on the classic tetramethylcyclam (TMC) ligand framework is replaced with a benzylic group to form the metastable [FeIV (Osyn )(Bn3MC)]2+ (2-syn; Bn3MC=1-benzyl-4,8,11-trimethyl-1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane) species at -40 °C. The decay of 2-syn with time at 25 °C allows the unprecedented monitoring of the steps involved in the intramolecular hydroxylation of the ligand phenyl ring to form the major FeIII -OAr product 3. At the same time, the FeII (Bn3MC)2+ (1) precursor to 2-syn is re-generated in a 1:2 molar ratio relative to 3, accounting for the first time for all the electrons involved and all the Fe species derived from 2-syn as shown in the following balanced equation: 3 [FeIV (O)(LPh )]2+ (2-syn)→2 [FeIII (LOAr )]2+ (3)+[FeII (LPh )]2+ (1)+H2 O. This system thus serves as a paradigm for aryl hydroxylation by FeIV =O oxidants described thus far. It is also observed that 2-syn can be intercepted by certain hydrocarbon substrates, thereby providing a means to assess the relative energetics of aliphatic and aromatic C-H hydroxylation in this system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Sheng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Chase S Abelson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Jai Prakash
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Apparao Draksharapu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Victor G Young
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Lawrence Que
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
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5
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Roy L. Theoretical Identification of the Factors Governing the Reactivity of C-H Bond Activation by Non-Heme Iron(IV)-Oxo Complexes. Chempluschem 2020; 84:893-906. [PMID: 31943994 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.201900178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Selective functionalization of C-H bonds provides a straightforward approach to a large variety of well-defined derivatives. High-valent mononuclear iron(IV)-oxo complexes are proposed to carry out these C-H activation reactions in enzymes or in biomimetic syntheses. In this Minireview, we aim to highlight the features that delineate the distinct reactivity of non-heme oxo-iron(IV) motifs to cleave strong C-H bonds in hydrocarbons, primarily focusing on the hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) process. We describe how the structural and electronic properties of supporting ligands modulate the oxidative property of the iron(IV)-oxo complexes. Furthermore, we highlight the decisive role played by spin-state in these biomimetic reactions. We also discuss how tunneling and external perturbations like electric field influence the transfer of hydrogen atoms. Lastly, we emphasize how computations could work as a practical guide to sketch and develop synthetic models with greater efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Roy
- Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai IOC Odisha Campus Bhubaneswar, IIT Kharagpur Extension Centre, Bhubaneswar, 751013, Odisha, India
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6
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Park H, Lee D. Ligand Taxonomy for Bioinorganic Modeling of Dioxygen-Activating Non-Heme Iron Enzymes. Chemistry 2020; 26:5916-5926. [PMID: 31909506 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201904975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 01/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Novel functions emerge from novel structures. To develop efficient catalytic systems for challenging chemical transformations, chemists often seek inspirations from enzymatic catalysis. A large number of iron complexes supported by nitrogen-rich multidentate ligands have thus been developed to mimic oxo-transfer reactivity of dioxygen-activating metalloenzymes. Such efforts have significantly advanced our understanding of the reaction mechanisms by trapping key intermediates and elucidating their geometric and electronic properties. Critical to the success of this biomimetic approach is the design and synthesis of elaborate ligand systems to balance the thermodynamic stability, structural adaptability, and chemical reactivity. In this Concept article, representative design strategies for biomimetic atom-transfer chemistry are discussed from the perspectives of "ligand builders". Emphasis is placed on how the primary coordination sphere is constructed, and how it can be elaborated further by rational design for desired functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunchang Park
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Korea
| | - Dongwhan Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Korea
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7
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Banerjee S, Rasheed W, Fan R, Draksharapu A, Oloo WN, Guo Y, Que L. NMR Reveals That a Highly Reactive Nonheme Fe IV =O Complex Retains Its Six-Coordinate Geometry and S=1 State in Solution. Chemistry 2019; 25:9608-9613. [PMID: 31059593 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201902048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The [FeIV (O)(Me3 NTB)]2+ (Me3 NTB=tris[(1-methyl-benzimidazol-2-yl)methyl]amine) complex 1 has been shown by Mössbauer spectroscopy to have an S=1 ground state at 4 K, but is proposed to become an S=2 trigonal-bipyramidal species at higher temperatures based on a DFT model to rationalize its very high C-H bond-cleavage reactivity. In this work, 1 H NMR spectroscopy was used to determine that 1 does not have C3 -symmetry in solution and is not an S=2 species. Our results show that 1 is unique among nonheme FeIV =O complexes in retaining its S=1 spin state and high reactivity at 193 K, providing evidence that S=1 FeIV =O complexes can be as reactive as their S=2 counterparts. This result emphasizes the need to identify factors besides the ground spin state of the FeIV =O center to rationalize nonheme oxoiron(IV) reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saikat Banerjee
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Waqas Rasheed
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ruixi Fan
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Apparao Draksharapu
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.,Current address: Southern Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, 208016, India
| | - Williamson N Oloo
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Yisong Guo
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Lawrence Que
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
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8
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Engelmann X, Malik DD, Corona T, Warm K, Farquhar ER, Swart M, Nam W, Ray K. Trapping of a Highly Reactive Oxoiron(IV) Complex in the Catalytic Epoxidation of Olefins by Hydrogen Peroxide. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201812758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xenia Engelmann
- Department of ChemistryHumboldt-Universität zu Berlin Brook-Taylor-Straße 2 12489 Berlin Germany
| | - Deesha D. Malik
- Department of Chemistry and Nano ScienceEwha Womans University Seoul 120-750 Korea
| | - Teresa Corona
- Department of ChemistryHumboldt-Universität zu Berlin Brook-Taylor-Straße 2 12489 Berlin Germany
| | - Katrin Warm
- Department of ChemistryHumboldt-Universität zu Berlin Brook-Taylor-Straße 2 12489 Berlin Germany
| | - Erik R. Farquhar
- Case Center for Synchrotron Biosciences, NSLS-IIBrookhaven National Laboratory Upton NY 11973 USA
| | - Marcel Swart
- ICREA Pg. Lluis Companys 23 08010 Barcelona Spain
- IQCCUniversitat de Girona Campus Montilivi 17003 Girona Spain
| | - Wonwoo Nam
- Department of Chemistry and Nano ScienceEwha Womans University Seoul 120-750 Korea
| | - Kallol Ray
- Department of ChemistryHumboldt-Universität zu Berlin Brook-Taylor-Straße 2 12489 Berlin Germany
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9
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Engelmann X, Malik DD, Corona T, Warm K, Farquhar ER, Swart M, Nam W, Ray K. Trapping of a Highly Reactive Oxoiron(IV) Complex in the Catalytic Epoxidation of Olefins by Hydrogen Peroxide. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:4012-4016. [PMID: 30663826 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201812758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The generation of a nonheme oxoiron(IV) intermediate, [(cyclam)FeIV (O)(CH3 CN)]2+ (2; cyclam=1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane), is reported in the reactions of [(cyclam)FeII ]2+ with aqueous hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) or a soluble iodosylbenzene (sPhIO) as a rare example of an oxoiron(IV) species that shows a preference for epoxidation over allylic oxidation in the oxidation of cyclohexene. Complex 2 is kinetically and catalytically competent to perform the epoxidation of olefins with high stereo- and regioselectivity. More importantly, 2 is likely to be the reactive intermediate involved in the catalytic epoxidation of olefins by [(cyclam)FeII ]2+ and H2 O2 . In spite of the predominance of the oxoiron(IV) cores in biology, the present study is a rare example of high-yield isolation and spectroscopic characterization of a catalytically relevant oxoiron(IV) intermediate in chemical oxidation reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xenia Engelmann
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Brook-Taylor-Straße 2, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Deesha D Malik
- Department of Chemistry and Nano Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 120-750, Korea
| | - Teresa Corona
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Brook-Taylor-Straße 2, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katrin Warm
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Brook-Taylor-Straße 2, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Erik R Farquhar
- Case Center for Synchrotron Biosciences, NSLS-II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA
| | - Marcel Swart
- ICREA, Pg. Lluis Companys 23, 08010, Barcelona, Spain.,IQCC, Universitat de Girona, Campus Montilivi, 17003, Girona, Spain
| | - Wonwoo Nam
- Department of Chemistry and Nano Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, 120-750, Korea
| | - Kallol Ray
- Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Brook-Taylor-Straße 2, 12489, Berlin, Germany
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10
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Rasheed W, Draksharapu A, Banerjee S, Young VG, Fan R, Guo Y, Ozerov M, Nehrkorn J, Krzystek J, Telser J, Que L. Crystallographic Evidence for a Sterically Induced Ferryl Tilt in a Non‐Heme Oxoiron(IV) Complex that Makes it a Better Oxidant. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201804836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Waqas Rasheed
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55455 USA
| | - Apparao Draksharapu
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55455 USA
| | - Saikat Banerjee
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55455 USA
| | - Victor G. Young
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55455 USA
| | - Ruixi Fan
- Department of Chemistry Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh PA 15213 USA
| | - Yisong Guo
- Department of Chemistry Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh PA 15213 USA
| | - M. Ozerov
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (NHMFL) Florida State University Tallahassee FL 32310 USA
| | - Joscha Nehrkorn
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (NHMFL) Florida State University Tallahassee FL 32310 USA
| | - J. Krzystek
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (NHMFL) Florida State University Tallahassee FL 32310 USA
| | - Joshua Telser
- Department of Biological Chemical and Physical Sciences Roosevelt University Chicago IL 60605 USA
| | - Lawrence Que
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55455 USA
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11
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Rasheed W, Draksharapu A, Banerjee S, Young VG, Fan R, Guo Y, Ozerov M, Nehrkorn J, Krzystek J, Telser J, Que L. Crystallographic Evidence for a Sterically Induced Ferryl Tilt in a Non-Heme Oxoiron(IV) Complex that Makes it a Better Oxidant. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:9387-9391. [PMID: 29882390 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201804836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Oxoiron(IV) units are often implicated as intermediates in the catalytic cycles of non-heme iron oxygenases and oxidases. The most reactive synthetic analogues of these intermediates are supported by tetradentate tripodal ligands with N-methylbenzimidazole or quinoline donors, but their instability precludes structural characterization. Herein we report crystal structures of two [FeIV (O)(L)]2+ complexes supported by pentadentate ligands incorporating these heterocycles, which show longer average Fe-N distances than the complex with only pyridine donors. These longer distances correlate linearly with log k2 ' values for O- and H-atom transfer rates, suggesting that weakening the ligand field increases the electrophilicity of the Fe=O center. The sterically bulkier quinoline donors are also found to tilt the Fe=O unit away from a linear N-Fe=O arrangement by 10°.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waqas Rasheed
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Apparao Draksharapu
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Saikat Banerjee
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Victor G Young
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ruixi Fan
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Yisong Guo
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - M Ozerov
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (NHMFL), Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32310, USA
| | - Joscha Nehrkorn
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (NHMFL), Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32310, USA
| | - J Krzystek
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory (NHMFL), Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32310, USA
| | - Joshua Telser
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Physical Sciences, Roosevelt University, Chicago, IL, 60605, USA
| | - Lawrence Que
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Metals in Biocatalysis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
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