Molecularly Engineered Macrophage‐Derived Exosomes with Inflammation Tropism and Intrinsic Heme Biosynthesis for Atherosclerosis Treatment

ROS-responsive biomimetic nanosystem camouflaged by hybrid membranes of platelet-exosomes engineered with neuronal targeting peptide for TBI therapy

Recovery and survival following traumatic brain injury (TBI) depends on optimal amelioration of secondary injuries at lesion site. Delivering mitochondria-protecting drugs to neurons may revive damaged neurons at sites secondarily traumatized by TBI. Pioglitazone (PGZ) is a promising candidate for TBI treatment, limited by its low brain accumulation and poor targetability to neurons. Herein, we report a ROS-responsive nanosystem, camouflaged by hybrid membranes of platelets and engineered extracellular vesicles (EVs) (C3-EPm-|TKNPs|), that can be used for targeted delivery of PGZ for TBI therapy. Inspired by intrinsic ability of macrophages for inflammatory chemotaxis, engineered M2-like macrophage-derived EVs were constructed by fusing C3 peptide to EVs membrane integrator protein, Lamp2b, to confer them with ability to target neurons in inflamed lesions. Platelets provided hybridized EPm with capabilities to target hemorrhagic area caused by trauma via surface proteins. Consequently, C3-EPm-|PGZ-TKNPs| were orientedly delivered to neurons located in the traumatized hemisphere after intravenous administration, and triggered the release of PGZ from TKNPs via oxidative stress. The current work demonstrate that C3-EPm-|TKNPs| can effectively deliver PGZ to alleviate mitochondrial damage via mitoNEET for neuroprotection, further reversing behavioral deficits in TBI mice. Our findings provide proof-of-concept evidence of C3-EPm-|TKNPs|-derived nanodrugs as potential clinical approaches against neuroinflammation-related intracranial diseases.

Long non-coding RNAs as pathophysiological regulators, therapeutic targets and novel extracellular vesicle biomarkers for the diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic relapsing disease of the gastrointestinal (GI) system that includes two groups, Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). To cope with these two classes of IBD, the investigation of pathogenic mechanisms and the discovery of new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches are crucial. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) which are non-coding RNAs with a length of longer than 200 nucleotides have indicated significant association with the pathology of IBD and strong potential to be used as accurate biomarkers in diagnosing and predicting responses to the IBD treatment. In the current review, we aim to investigate the role of lncRNAs in the pathology and development of IBD. We first describe recent advances in research on dysregulated lncRNAs in the pathogenesis of IBD from the perspective of epithelial barrier function, intestinal immunity, mitochondrial function, and intestinal autophagy. Then, we highlight the possible translational role of lncRNAs as therapeutic targets, diagnostic biomarkers, and predictors of therapeutic response in colon tissues and plasma samples. Finally, we discuss the potential of extracellular vesicles and their lncRNA cargo in the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of IBD.

The Emerging Role of Human Gut Bacteria Extracellular Vesicles in Mental Disorders and Developing New Pharmaceuticals

In recent years, further evidence has emerged regarding the involvement of extracellular vesicles in various human physiopathological conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, irritable bowel syndrome, and mental disorders. The biogenesis and cargo of such vesicles may reveal their impact on human health nd disease and set the underpinnings for the development of novel chemical compounds and pharmaceuticals. In this review, we examine the link between bacteria-derived exosomes in the gastrointestinal tract and mental disorders, such as depression and anxiety disorders. Crucially, we focus on whether changes in the gut environment affect the human mental state or the other way around. Furthermore, the possibility of handling bacteria-derived exosomes as vectors of chemicals to treat such conditions is examined.

Unveiling the Role of Exosomes in the Pathophysiology of Sepsis: Insights into Organ Dysfunction and Potential Biomarkers

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tools for intercellular communication, mediating molecular transport processes. Emerging studies have revealed that EVs are significantly involved in immune processes, including sepsis. Sepsis, a dysregulated immune response to infection, triggers systemic inflammation and multi-organ dysfunction, posing a life-threatening condition. Although extensive research has been conducted on animals, the complex inflammatory mechanisms that cause sepsis-induced organ failure in humans are still not fully understood. Recent studies have focused on secreted exosomes, which are small extracellular vesicles from various body cells, and have shed light on their involvement in the pathophysiology of sepsis. During sepsis, exosomes undergo changes in content, concentration, and function, which significantly affect the metabolism of endothelia, cardiovascular functions, and coagulation. Investigating the role of exosome content in the pathogenesis of sepsis shows promise for understanding the molecular basis of human sepsis. This review explores the contributions of activated immune cells and diverse body cells' secreted exosomes to vital organ dysfunction in sepsis, providing insights into potential molecular biomarkers for predicting organ failure in septic shock.

Functional Microneedle Patch for Wound Healing and Biological Diagnosis and Treatment

Wound healing, especially chronic wounds, has been one of the major challenges in the field of biomedicine. Drug therapy alone is not effective, so a variety of functional wound healing dressings have been developed. Microneedles have attracted more and more attentions in the field of wound healing dressings due to their penetration and high drug delivery efficiency. In this review, all the studies on the application of microneedles in wound healing in recent years are summarized, classify different microneedles according to their functions in the process of wound healing, discuss the current challenges in the transformation of microneedle technology toward clinical applications, and finally look forward to the future design and development directions of microneedles in this field.

Deregulation of exosomal miRNAs in rheumatoid arthritis patients

Exosomes are small-diameter endosomal vesicles secreted in all biological fluids and play biological/pathological roles in the cell. These pathological roles are played by exosome's cargo molecules through inter-cellular communication. Exosomal cargo molecules contain proteins and miRNAs. miRNAs are small non-coding RNA fragments involved in the reduction of final protein output by destabilizing or suppressing the translation of target messenger RNA (mRNA). This deregulation of the protein due to miRNAs ultimately accelerates the process of disease pathogenesis. The role of exosomal miRNAs has been investigated in different diseases and the limited number of studies have been published concerning exosomal miRNAs and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The current study is designed to investigate the role of exosomal miRNAs (miRNA-103a-3p, miRNA-10a-5p, miRNA-204-3p, miRNA-330-3p, and miRNA-19b) in the pathogenesis of RA. Furthermore, the role of selected exosomal miRNAs in RA pathogenesis was further explored by estimating oxidative stress and histone deacetylation in RA patients. In the current study, 306 RA patients and equal numbers of age/gender-matched controls were used. The level of expression of above-mentioned exosomal miRNAs was assessed by performing qRT PCR. Deacetylation and oxidative stress assays were performed to estimate the 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG level) and histone deacetylation levels using the Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Statistical analysis indicated a significantly downregulated expression of miRNA-103a-3p (p<0.0001), miR-10a-5p (p<0.0001), miR-204-3p (p<0.0001), miR-330-3p (p<0.0001) and miR-19b (p<0.0001) in RA patients compared to controls. Significantly increased levels of 8-OHdG (p<0.0001) and histone deacetylation (p<0.0001) were observed among RA patients compared to controls. Spearman correlation showed a negative correlation between the deregulated exosomal miRNAs and increased oxidative stress and histone deacetylation in RA patients. Receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve analysis showed a good diagnostic specificity/sensitivity of the above-mentioned exosomal miRNAs among RA patients. These analyses indicated the potential role of deregulated exosomal miRNAs in the initiation of RA by targeting oxidative stress and histone deacetylation processes.

Current Strategies for Exosome Cargo Loading and Targeting Delivery

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) such as ectosomes and exosomes have gained attention as promising natural carriers for drug delivery. Exosomes, which range from 30 to 100 nm in diameter, possess a lipid bilayer and are secreted by various cells. Due to their high biocompatibility, stability, and low immunogenicity, exosomes are favored as cargo carriers. The lipid bilayer membrane of exosomes also offers protection against cargo degradation, making them a desirable candidate for drug delivery. However, loading cargo into exosomes remains to be a challenge. Despite various strategies such as incubation, electroporation, sonication, extrusion, freeze-thaw cycling, and transfection that have been developed to facilitate cargo loading, inadequate efficiency still persists. This review offers an overview of current cargo delivery strategies using exosomes and summarizes recent approaches for loading small-molecule, nucleic acid, and protein drugs into exosomes. With insights from these studies, we provide ideas for more efficient and effective delivery of drug molecules by using exosomes.

Advanced Multifunctional Wound Dressing Hydrogels as Drug Carriers

Skin injuries, especially chronic wounds, remain a significant healthcare system problem. The number of burns, diabetic patients, pressure ulcers, and other damages is also growing, particularly in elderly populations. Several investigations are pursued in designing more effective therapeutics for treating different wound injuries. These efforts have resulted in developing multifunctional wound dressings to improve wound repair. For this, preparing multifunctional dressings using various methods has provided a new attitude to support effective skin regeneration. This review focuses on the recent developments in designing multifunctional hydrogel dressings with hemostasis, adhesiveness, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties.

An Optimally Designed Engineering Exosome-Reductive COF Integrated Nanoagent for Synergistically Enhanced Diabetic Fester Wound Healing

Oxidative stress and local overactive inflammation have been considered major obstacles in diabetic wound treatment. Although antiphlogistic tactics have been reported widely, they are also challenged by pathogen contamination and compromised angiogenesis. Herein, a versatile integrated nanoagent based on 2D reductive covalent organic frameworks coated with antibacterial immuno-engineered exosome (PCOF@E-Exo) is reported to achieve efficient and comprehensive combination therapy for diabetic wounds. The E-Exo is collected from TNF-α-treated mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) under hypoxia and encapsulated cationic antimicrobial carbon dots (CDs). This integrated nanoagent not only significantly scavenges reactive oxygen species and induces anti-inflammatory M2 macrophage polarization, but also stabilizes hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α). More importantly, the PCOF@E-Exo exhibits intriguing bactericide capabilities toward Gram-negative, Gram-positive, and drug-resistant bacteria, showing favorable intracellular bacterial destruction and biofilm permeation. In vivo results demonstrate that the synergetic impact of suppressing oxidative injury and tissue inflammation, promoting angiogenesis and eradicating bacterial infection, could significantly accelerate the infected diabetic fester wound healing with better therapeutic benefits than monotherapy or individual antibiotics. The proposed strategy can inspire further research to design more delicate platforms using the combination of immunotherapy with other therapeutic methods for more efficient ulcerated diabetic wounds treatments.

Current Development of Nano-Drug Delivery to Target Macrophages

Macrophages are the most important innate immune cells that participate in various inflammation-related diseases. Therefore, macrophage-related pathological processes are essential targets in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. Since nanoparticles (NPs) can be preferentially taken up by macrophages, NPs have attracted most attention for specific macrophage-targeting. In this review, the interactions between NPs and the immune system are introduced to help understand the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of NPs in immune cells. The current design and strategy of NPs modification for specific macrophage-targeting are investigated and summarized.

Smart Tumor-Cell-Derived Microparticles Provide On-Demand Photosensitizer Synthesis and Hypoxia Relief for Photodynamic Therapy

Positioning essential elements of photodynamic therapy (PDT) near to mitochondria can conquer the rigorous spatiotemporal limitations of reactive oxygen species (ROS) transfer and make considerable differences in PDT. However, precise accumulation of photosensitizer (PS) and oxygen within mitochondria is still challenging. We simultaneously encapsulated hexyl 5-aminolevulinate hydrochloride (HAL) and 3-bromopyruvic acid (3BP) into microparticles collected from X-ray-irradiated tumor cells (X-MP). After systemic administration, the developed HAL/3BP@X-MP can specifically target and recognize tumor cells, where HAL induces efficient accumulation of PpIX in mitochondria via the intrinsic haem biosynthetic pathway. Meanwhile, 3BP remarkably increases the oxygen supply by inhibiting mitochondrial respiration. The accurate co-localization and prompt encounter of PpIX and oxygen produce sufficient ROS to directly disrupt mitochondria, resulting in significantly improved PDT outcomes.

Biomimetic Nanoemulsion for Synergistic Photodynamic-Immunotherapy Against Hypoxic Breast Tumor

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is commonly used as an "in situ vaccine" to enhance the response rate of PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies. Unfortunately, the high cost and adverse effects of these antibodies, and the hypoxic state of solid tumors limits the efficacy of synergistic photodynamic-immunotherapy. Here, we developed a biomimetic nanoemulsion camouflaged with a PD-1-expressing cell membrane for synergistic photodynamic-immunotherapy against hypoxic breast tumors. The perfluorocarbon of the nanoemulsion could provide oxygen as the source of PDT against hypoxic tumors. Moreover, co-delivering a photosensitizer and the PD-1 protein (substituting for a PD-L1 antibody) achieves the synergy effect of PDT and immunotherapy. Synergistic photodynamic-immunotherapy completely inhibited primary and distant subcutaneous 4T1 tumors, mechanistically by boosting the maturation of dendritic cells and tumor infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes.

Circulating Extracellular Vesicles As Biomarkers and Drug Delivery Vehicles in Cardiovascular Diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are composed of a lipid bilayer containing transmembrane and soluble proteins. Subtypes of EVs include ectosomes (microparticles/microvesicles), exosomes, and apoptotic bodies that can be released by various tissues into biological fluids. EV cargo can modulate physiological and pathological processes in recipient cells through near- and long-distance intercellular communication. Recent studies have shown that origin, amount, and internal cargos (nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids) of EVs are variable under different pathological conditions, including cardiovascular diseases (CVD). The early detection and management of CVD reduce premature morbidity and mortality. Circulating EVs have attracted great interest as a potential biomarker for diagnostics and follow-up of CVD. This review highlights the role of circulating EVs as biomarkers for diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic follow-up of CVD, and also for drug delivery. Despite the great potential of EVs as a tool to study the pathophysiology of CVD, further studies are needed to increase the spectrum of EV-associated applications.

Calming Cytokine Storm in Pneumonia by Targeted Delivery of TPCA-1 Using Platelet-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Pneumonia can cause high morbidity and mortality because of uncontrolled inflammation in the lung tissue. Calming the cytokine storm may be one key to saving the life of patients with severe pneumonia. Here, inspired by the intrinsic affinity of platelets to the site of inflammation, we have engineered platelet-derived extracellular vesicles (PEVs) for pneumonia-targeted drug delivery. It is demonstrated that PEVs that are easily generated from the activated platelets can selectively target pneumonia in the mouse model with acute lung injury (ALI). By loading with [5-(p-fluorophenyl)-2-ureido]thiophene-3-carboxamide (TPCA-1), which can inhibit the production of inflammatory factors, the PEVs significantly improve therapeutic benefits by inhibiting the infiltration of pulmonary inflammatory cells and calming local cytokine storm compared with the free drug-treated group. Furthermore, we find that PEVs could serve as a broad platform that can selectively target various inflammatory sites, including chronic atherosclerotic plaque, rheumatoid arthritis, and wounds associated with skin.