Transition-metal-mediated reactions for C(sp2)-F bond construction: the state of play

Oxidative Fluoroarylation of Benzylidenecyclopropanes with HF·Py and Aryl Iodides via Iodonio-[3,3]-Rearrangement

Reported herein is an in situ-generated hypervalent iodine-incorporating fluoroarylation of benzylidenecyclopropanes using commercially available HF·Py and aryl iodides as fluorine and aryl sources, respectively. The reaction proceeds via regioselective 1,2-fluoroiodination of a double bond followed by an iodonio-[3,3]-rearrangement of the formed cyclopropyl-I^(III) species. The protocol offers facile access to valuable monofluorinated 1,1-bis-benzyl-alkenes with mild reaction conditions and moderate to good yields. The synthetic utility of the products was demonstrated by further transformations. Preliminary mechanistic studies were conducted.

Fluorination Reactions at a Platinum Carbene Complex: Reaction Routes to SF3 , S(=O)F and Fluorido Complexes

The electron-rich Pt complex [Pt(IMes)2 ] (IMes: [1,3-bis(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)-2-imidazolinylidine]) can be used as precursor for the syntheses of a variety of fluorido ligand containing compounds. The sulfur fluoride SF4 undergoes a rapid oxidative addition at Pt0 to yield trans-[Pt(F)(SF3 )(IMes)2 ]. A photolytic reaction of SF6 at [Pt(IMes)2 ] in the presence of IMes gave the fluorido complexes trans-[Pt(F)2 (IMes)2 ] and trans-[Pt(F)(SF3 )(IMes)2 ] along with trans-[Pt(F)(SOF)(IMes)2 ] and trans-[Pt(F)(IMes')(IMes)] (IMes': cyclometalated IMes ligand), the latter being products produced by reaction with adventitious water. trans-[Pt(F)(SOF)(IMes)2 ] and trans-[Pt(F)2 (IMes)2 ] were synthesized independently by treatment of [Pt(IMes)2 ] with SOF2 or XeF2 . A reaction of [Pt(IMes)2 ] with a HF source gave trans-[Pt(H)(F)(IMes)2 ], and an intermediate bifluorido complex trans-[Pt(H)(FHF)(IMes)2 ] was identified. Compound trans-[Pt(H)(F)(IMes)2 ] converts in the presence of CsF into trans-[Pt(F)(IMes')(IMes)].

Rapid Access to Fluorinated Anilides via DAST-Mediated Deoxyfluorination of Arylhydroxylamines

A new strategy for the synthesis of fluorinated anilides in the absence of metals and oxidants has been developed. This deoxyfluorination of N-arylhydroxylamines with diethylaminosulfur trifluoride (DAST) proceeded smoothly under mild conditions, and the ortho- or para-fluorinated aromatic amine products were prepared in moderate to good yields. Structurally diverse fluorinated anilides, including heterocyclic and pharmaceutically relevant molecules, can be efficiently constructed by this protocol.

Late-stage difluoromethylation: concepts, developments and perspective

This review describes the conceptual advances that have led to the multiple difluoromethylation processes making use of well-defined CF₂H sources.

Achievements in fluorination using variable reagents through a deoxyfluorination reaction

The application of fluorination reagent for the direct conversion of alcohols and phenols to fluorinated analogues.

Stereodivergent Alkyne Hydrofluorination Using Protic Tetrafluoroborates as Tunable Reagents

The discovery of safe, general, and practical procedures to prepare vinyl fluorides from readily available precursors remains a synthetic challenge. The metal-free hydrofluorination of alkynes constitutes an attractive though elusive strategy for their preparation. Introduced here is an inexpensive and easily handled reagent that enables the development of simple and scalable protocols for the regioselective hydrofluorination of alkynes to access both the E and Z isomers of vinyl fluorides. These reaction conditions were suitable for a diverse collection of alkynes, including several highly functionalized pharmaceutical derivatives. Computational and experimental mechanistic studies support C-F bond formation through vinyl cation intermediates, with the E- and Z-hydrofluorination products forming under kinetic and thermodynamic control, respectively.

Recent Progress in Chlorinated Organic Photovoltaic Materials

ConspectusOver the past few years, the development of new materials has contributed to rapid increases in the power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells to over 17%, showing great potential for the commercialization of this technology in the near future. At this stage, designing new materials with superior performance and low cost simultaneously is of crucial importance. Chlorinated materials are emerging as new stars with very high PCEs, creating a molecular design trend to replace the most popular fluorinated materials. For example, by using chlorinated non-fullerene acceptors, we recently got a record PCE of 17% for single-junction OPV cells. Firmly based on recent advances, herein we focus on the topic of chlorinated OPV materials, aiming to provide a guideline for further molecular design.In this Account, first, on the basis of most fundamental features of the Cl atom, we highlight the features of chlorinated materials compared with their fluorinated counterparts: (1) Chlorination is more efficient than fluorination in modulating the optical and electrical properties of OPV materials. In many cases, chlorinated materials show lower energy levels and broader absorption spectra than their fluorinated counterparts, which contribute higher output voltages and current densities in the resulting photovoltaic devices. (2) Cl has a large atomic size than F. On one hand, enhanced overlap of π electrons is beneficial for enhancing the intermolecular packing and crystalline property and thus improving the charge transport. On the other hand, if Cl is introduced inappropriately in the backbone or side chain, this feature will cause a more twisted π plane and larger steric hindrance, having negative impacts on the photovoltaic performance of the corresponding materials. (3) Importantly, chlorination is usually chemically cheaper in synthesis, which has the potential to decrease the material cost of OPV cells. Then, we provide a concise review of chlorinated OPV materials, including polymeric and small-molecule donors and non-fullerene acceptors. The photovoltaic performance in various types of OPV cells using chlorinated materials, such as single-junction, tandem, semitransparent, and indoor-light photovoltaic cells is also discussed. For instance, ultranarrow-band-gap chlorinated acceptors can be used to construct highly efficient color-semitransparent OPV cells, and the wide-band-gap chlorinated materials show great potential for fabricating indoor-light photovoltaic devices. Finally, we briefly discuss current questions related to chlorinated OPV materials and highlight the significance of chlorination in future development.

Copper-Mediated Fluorination of Aryl Trisiloxanes with Nucleophilic Fluoride

A method for the nucleophilic fluorination of heptamethyl aryl trisiloxanes to form fluoroarenes is reported. The reaction proceeds in the presence of Cu(OTf)2 and KHF2 as the fluoride source under mild conditions for a broad range of heptamethyltrisiloxyarenes with high functional group tolerance. The combination of this method with the silylation of aryl C-H bonds enables the regioselective fluorination of non-activated arenes controlled by steric effects following a two-step protocol.

Synthesis of [18 F]Fluoroarenes by Nucleophilic Radiofluorination of N-Arylsydnones

A practical method for radiofluorination of anilines with [18 F]fluoride via N-arylsydnone intermediates is described. These precursors are stable, easy to handle and facilitate direct and regioselective 18 F-labeling to prepare [18 F]fluoroarenes. The value of this methodology is further highlighted by successful application to prepare an 18 F-labeled neuropeptide.

The Versatile Behavior of Platinum Alkyne Complexes towards XeF2 : Formation of Fluorovinyl and Fluorido Complexes

Reactions of platinum(0) tolane complexes, bearing a chelating ligand with P and N donor atoms, with the electrophilic fluorinating agent XeF₂ give facile access to platinum(II) β-fluorovinyl fluorido complexes. A series of new platinum(II) β-fluorovinyl complexes have been synthesized and were structurally characterized. Further oxidation with XeF₂ led to ortho-metalated platinum(IV) fluorido compounds. Additional reactions of platinum(0) tolane complexes, bearing a chelating P,P donor ligand, with XeF₂ led to a variety of fluorido and fluorovinyl complexes.

A practical and catalyst-free trifluoroethylation reaction of amines using trifluoroacetic acid

Amines are a fundamentally important class of biologically active compounds and the ability to manipulate their physicochemical properties through the introduction of fluorine is of paramount importance in medicinal chemistry. Current synthesis methods for the construction of fluorinated amines rely on air and moisture sensitive reagents that require special handling or harsh reductants that limit functionality. Here we report practical, catalyst-free, reductive trifluoroethylation reactions of free amines exhibiting remarkable functional group tolerance. The reactions proceed in conventional glassware without rigorous exclusion of either moisture or oxygen, and use trifluoroacetic acid as a stable and inexpensive fluorine source. The new methods provide access to a wide range of medicinally relevant functionalized tertiary β-fluoroalkylamine cores, either through direct trifluoroethylation of secondary amines or via a three-component coupling of primary amines, aldehydes and trifluoroacetic acid. A reduction of in situ-generated silyl ester species is proposed to account for the reductive selectivity observed.

Amino and trifluoromethyl groups are ubiquitous within medicinal chemistry, but synthesis of fluoroalkylamines normally requires harsh conditions or sensitive reagents. Here the authors report an operationally simple, catalyst-free procedure for the trifluoroethylation of primary and secondary amines.

Synthesis of a rhodium(i) germyl complex: a useful tool for C–H and C–F bond activation reactions

The rhodium(i) germyl complex [Rh(GePh₃)(PEt₃)₃] is a useful tool for C–F and C–H bond activation reactions. For instance, treatment with hexafluoropropene results in the formation of two isomeric C–F activation products [Rh{(E)-CFCF(CF₃)}(PEt₃)₃] and [Rh{(Z)-CFCF(CF₃)}(PEt₃)₃] in a 3 : 1 ratio.

Reactivity of platinum alkyne complexes towards N-fluorobenzenesulfonimide: formation of platinum compounds bearing a β-fluorovinyl ligand

The platinum(0) alkyne complexes [Pt(L)(η(2)-PhC[triple bond, length as m-dash]CPh)] 1-4 were synthesized by reactions of [Pt(cod)2] with diphenylacetylene and a phosphine ligand precursor (1: L = dcpe, 2: L = xantphos, 3: L = κ(2)-(P,N)-iPr2PC3H6NMe2, 4: L = κ(2)-(P,N)-iPr2PC2H4NMe2). Treatment of 1 or 4 with NFSI gave the complexes [Pt(F){N(SO2Ph)2}(dcpe)] (5) and [Pt(PhC[double bond, length as m-dash]CFPh){N(SO2Ph)2}{κ(2)-(P,N)-iPr2PC2H4NMe2}] (8), whereas the reactivity of 2 and 3 towards NFSI led to product mixtures. The compounds [Pt(F){N(SO2Ph)2}(xantphos)] (6a) as well as [Pt(PhC[double bond, length as m-dash]CFPh){N(SO2Ph)2}{κ(2)-(P,N)-iPr2PC2H4NMe2}] (7a) and [Pt(PhC[double bond, length as m-dash]CFPh)(F){κ(2)-(P,N)-iPr2PC2H4NMe2}] (7b) were clearly identified. Ligand exchange reactions at 8 resulted in the formation of the β-fluorovinyl platinum(ii) complexes [Pt(PhC[double bond, length as m-dash]CFPh){OC(O)CF3}{κ(2)-(P,N)-iPr2PC2H4NMe2}] (9), [Pt(PhC[double bond, length as m-dash]CFPh)(FHF){κ(2)-(P,N)-iPr2PC2H4NMe2}] (10) and [Pt(PhC[double bond, length as m-dash]CFPh)(F){κ(2)-(P,N)-iPr2PC2H4NMe2}] (11). Treatment of 8 with dihydrogen yielded the fluorinated olefin (Z)-(1-fluoroethene-1,2-diyl)dibenzene and [Pt{N(SO2Ph)2}(H){κ(2)-(P,N)-iPr2PC2H4NMe2}] (12).

A T-shaped Ni[κ2-(CF2)4-] NHC complex: unusual Csp3 -F and M-CF bond functionalization reactions

The reactivity of this T-shaped perfluoronickelacyclopentane–NHC complex with Lewis- and Brønsted acids is enhanced vs. 4-coordinate variants by its low coordination number.

A T-shaped octafluoronickelacyclopentane–NHC complex is prepared and characterized. While the solid-state structure includes a weak isopropyl-CH₃ agostic interaction, the reactivity of this complex with Lewis- and Brønsted acids is clearly enhanced by its low coordination number. Reaction with Me₃SiOTf, for example, yielded a rare metal–heptafluorocyclobutyl complex whereas carboxylic acids gave substitution at the α-carbon and/or Ni–C^F bond protonolysis to afford thermally robust 4H-octafluorobutyl Ni complexes.

Transition metal complex assisted Csp3-F bond formation

Fluoroorganic compounds have attracted significant attention in various fields, such as pharmaceutical, agricultural chemistry, and materials science, as a result of their unique physical, chemical, and physiological properties. Consequently, extensive efforts have been devoted to the site-specific synthesis of organofluorine compounds. In recent years, transition-metal-mediated C-F bond formation has emerged as a powerful method for fabrication of these compounds. this Perspective mainly focuses on the most recent advances in transition-metal-assisted synthesis of alkyl fluorides.

Late-stage fluorination: fancy novelty or useful tool?

Charming fluorine: This Essay examines the recent surge in late-stage fluorination reactions and outlines challenges that need to be overcome to increase the impact of modern fluorination methods on the synthesis of complex organofluorine compounds. It is outlined how an improved understanding of the bonding interactions of fluoride could lead to a new class of mild fluorinating reagents and a range of functional-group-tolerant reactions.

Low-coordinate iridium NHC complexes derived from selective and reversible C–H bond activation of fluoroarenes

A reactive iridium(i) fragment supported by conformationally rigid NHC ligands undergoes mild and reversible C–H bond activation of simple fluoroarenes.

The mechanism, electronic and ligand effects for reductive elimination from arylPd(ii) trifluoromethyl complexes: a systematic DFT study

Detailed reaction mechanisms and ligand effects have been studied for reductive elimination of Ar–CF₃ from Pd(ii) centers.

Asymmetric fluorocyclizations of alkenes

CONSPECTUS: The vicinal fluorofunctionalization of alkenes is an attractive transformation that converts feedstock olefins into valuable cyclic fluorinated molecules for application in the pharmaceutical, agrochemical, medical, and material sectors. The challenges associated with asymmetric fluorocyclizations induced by F(+) reagents are distinct from other types of halocyclizations. Processes initiated by the addition of an F(+) reagent onto an alkene do not involve the reversible formation of bridged fluoronium ions but generate acyclic β-fluorocationic intermediates. This mechanistic feature implies that fluorocyclizations are not stereospecific. A discontinuity exists between the importance of this class of fluorocyclization and the activation modes currently available to implement successful catalysis. Progress toward fluorocyclization has been achieved by investing in neutral and cationic [NF] reagent development. The body of work on asymmetric fluorination using chiral cationic [NF](+) reagents prepared by fluorine transfer from the dicationic [NF](2+) reagent Selectfluor to quinuclidines, inspired the development of asymmetric F(+)-induced fluorocyclizations catalyzed by cinchona alkaloids; for catalysis, the use of N-fluorobenzenesulfonimide, which is less reactive than Selectfluor, ensures that the achiral F(+) source remains unreactive toward the alkene. These organocatalyzed enantioselective fluorocyclizations can be applied to indoles to install the fluorine on a quaternary benzylic stereogenic carbon center and to afford fluorinated analogues of natural products featuring the hexahydropyrrolo[2,3-b]indole or the tetrahydro-2H-furo[2,3-b]indole skeleton. In an alternative approach, the poor solubility of dicationic Selectfluor bis(tetrafluoroborate) in nonpolar solvent was exploited with anionic phase transfer catalysis as the operating activation mode. Exchange of the tetrafluoroborate ions of Selectfluor with bulky lipophilic chiral anions (e.g., TRIP and derivatives) brings into solution the resulting chiral Selectfluor reagent, now capable of asymmetric fluorocyclization. This strategy is best applied to a subset of substrates bearing a nucleophilic pendent group (benzamide is best) capable of hydrogen bonding for association with the chiral phosphate catalyst. These contributions focused on fluoroheterocyclization involving either O- or N-nucleophiles. As for other halocyclizations, alkenes armed with π C-nucleophiles represent the most demanding class of substrates for asymmetric F(+)-induced electrophilic fluorination-cyclization. Successful implementation required the design of new chiral Selectfluor reagents featuring stereogenicity on the DABCO core. These reagents, accessible from chiral vicinal diamines, allowed the synthesis of unusual chiral fluorine-containing tetracyclic compounds, some composed of carbon, hydrogen, and fluorine exclusively. The challenges associated with F(+)-induced fluorocarbocyclizations prompted methodologists to consider chemistry where the Csp(3)-F bond formation event follows a catalyst-controlled cyclization. An exciting development built on in the area of transition metal π-cyclization of polyenes leading to cationic metal-alkyl intermediates. When intercepted by oxidative fluorodemetalation with a F(+) source, the resulting products are complex polycyclic structures emerging from an overall catalytic cascade fluorocarbocyclization. Complementing F(+)-based reactions, examples of fluorocyclizations with fluoride in the presence of an oxidant were reported. Despite some exciting developments, the field of asymmetric fluorocyclizations is in its infancy and undoubtedly requires new activation modes, catalysts, as well as F(+) and F(-) reagents to progress into general retrosynthetic approach toward enantioenriched fluorocycles. Numerous opportunities emerge, not least the use of a latent fluorine source as a means to minimize background fluorination.